Academic degree - Wikipedia

Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate Academicdegree FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Collegeoruniversitydiploma NottobeconfusedwithAcademicranks. Thisarticlehasmultipleissues.Pleasehelpimproveitordiscusstheseissuesonthetalkpage.(Learnhowandwhentoremovethesetemplatemessages) Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Academicdegree" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(April2010)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thisarticlepossiblycontainsoriginalresearch.Pleaseimproveitbyverifyingtheclaimsmadeandaddinginlinecitations.Statementsconsistingonlyoforiginalresearchshouldberemoved.(October2011)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) (Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Anacademicdegreeisaqualificationawardedtostudentsuponsuccessfulcompletionofacourseofstudyinhighereducation,usuallyatacollegeoruniversity.Theseinstitutionscommonlyofferdegreesatvariouslevels,usuallyincludingbachelor's,master'sanddoctorates,oftenalongsideotheracademiccertificatesandprofessionaldegrees.Themostcommonundergraduatedegreeisthebachelor'sdegree,althoughinsomecountriestherearelowerlevelhighereducationqualificationsthatarealsotitleddegrees(e.g.associatedegreesandfoundationdegrees)andhigherlevel(e.g.undergraduatemaster'sdegrees). Contents 1History 1.1Emergenceofthedoctor’sandmaster’sdegreesandthelicentiate 1.2Emergenceofthebachelor'sdegree 1.3Theevolutionoftheterminologyofdegrees 1.4Degreesawardedbyinstitutionsotherthanuniversities 1.5Academicdress 2Lawsongrantinganduseofdegrees 3Indicatingearneddegrees 4Onlinedegree 5Degreesystemsbyregions 5.1Asia 5.1.1Bangladesh,IndiaandPakistan 5.1.2SriLanka 5.2Africa 5.2.1Tunisia 5.2.2SouthAfrica 5.2.3Kenya 5.3Europe 5.3.1Austria 5.3.2CzechRepublic 5.3.3Denmark 5.3.4Finland 5.3.5France 5.3.6Germany 5.3.7Greece 5.3.8Ireland 5.3.9Italy 5.3.10Netherlands 5.3.10.1Admission 5.3.10.2Pre-Bolognaphases 5.3.10.3Bachelor/masterstructure 5.3.10.4Academictitlebearing 5.3.11Norway 5.3.12Poland 5.3.13Russia,UkraineandsomeotherformerUSSRrepublics 5.3.14Spain 5.3.15Sweden 5.3.16Switzerland 5.3.17UnitedKingdom 5.3.17.1England,WalesandNorthernIreland 5.3.17.2Scotland 5.4NorthAmerica 5.4.1Canada 5.4.1.1Quebec 5.4.2Mexico 5.4.3UnitedStates 5.4.3.1Currentlevelsofattainmentofdegrees 5.4.3.2PerceptionsofthevalueofadegreeintheUS 5.5Oceania 5.5.1Australia 5.5.2NewZealand 5.6SouthAmerica 5.6.1Argentina 5.6.2Brazil 5.6.3Colombia 5.6.4Chile 5.6.5Venezuela 6Pontificaluniversities 7Seealso 8References History[edit] MeetingofdoctorsattheUniversityofParis(16th-centuryminiature) Emergenceofthedoctor’sandmaster’sdegreesandthelicentiate[edit] Thedoctorate(Latin:doceo“Iteach”)appearedinmedievalEuropeasalicensetoteach(Latin:licentiadocendi)atamedievaluniversity.[1]Itsrootscanbetracedtotheearlychurchwhentheterm"doctor"referredtotheApostles,churchfathersandotherChristianauthoritieswhotaughtandinterpretedtheBible.[1]Therighttograntalicentiadocendiwasoriginallyreservedtothechurchwhichrequiredtheapplicanttopassatest,totakeoathofallegianceandpayafee.TheThirdCounciloftheLateranof1179guaranteedtheaccess–nowlargelyfreeofcharge–ofallableapplicants,whowere,however,stilltestedforaptitudebytheecclesiasticscholastic.[2]Thisrightremainedaboneofcontentionbetweenthechurchauthoritiesandtheslowlyemancipatinguniversities,butwasgrantedbythePopetotheUniversityofParisin1231whereitbecameauniversallicensetoteach(licentiaubiquedocendi).[2]However,whilethelicentiacontinuedtoholdahigherprestigethanthebachelor'sdegree(Baccalaureus),itwasultimatelyreducedtoanintermediatesteptotheMagisteranddoctorate,bothofwhichnowbecametheexclusivequalificationforteaching.[2] Attheuniversity,doctoraltrainingwasaformofapprenticeshiptoaguild.[3]Thetraditionaltermofstudybeforenewteacherswereadmittedtotheguildof"MasterofArts",sevenyears,wasthesameasthetermofapprenticeshipforotheroccupations.Originallytheterms"master"and"doctor"weresynonymous,[4]butovertimethedoctoratecametoberegardedasahigherqualificationthanthemaster'sdegree. Todaytheterms"master"(fromtheLatin'magister'–meaningliterally:"teacher"),"Doctor",and"Professor"signifydifferentlevelsofacademicachievement,butintheMedievaluniversitytheywereequivalentterms,theuseoftheminthedegreenamebeingamatterofcustomatauniversity.(MostuniversitiesconferredtheMasterofArts,althoughthehighestdegreewasoftentermedMasterofTheology/DivinityorDoctorofTheology/Divinitydependingontheplace). Theearliestdoctoraldegrees(theology–DivinitatisDoctor(D.D.),law–LegumDoctor(LL.D.,laterD.C.L.)andmedicine–MedicinæDoctor(M.D.,D.M.))reflectedthehistoricalseparationofallhigherUniversitystudyintothesethreefields.Overtime,theD.D.hasgraduallybecomelesscommonoutsidetheologyandisnowmostlyusedforhonorarydegrees,withthetitle"DoctorofTheology"beingusedmoreoftenforearneddegrees.Studiesoutsidetheology,lawandmedicinewerethencalled"philosophy",duetotheRenaissanceconvictionthatrealknowledgecouldbederivedfromempiricalobservation.ThedegreetitleofDoctorofPhilosophyisamuchlatertimeandwasnotintroducedinEnglandbefore1900.Studiesinwhatoncewascalledphilosophyarenowclassifiedassciencesandhumanities. GeorgeMakdisitheorizesthattheijazahissuedinmedievalIslamicmadrasasinthe9thcenturywastheoriginofthedoctoratethatlaterappearedinmedievalEuropeanuniversities.[5]AlfredGuillaume,[6]SyedFaridal-Attas[6]andDevinJ.Stewartagreethatthereisaresemblancebetweentheijazahandtheuniversitydegree.[7]However,TobyHuffandothersrejectMakdisi'stheory.[8][9][10][11]DevinJ.Stewartfindsthattheijazatal-ifta,licensetoteachIslamiclawandissuelegalopinions,ismostsimilartothemedievalEuropeanuniversitydegreeinthatitpermitsentryintocertainprofessions.However,akeydifferentisthatthegrantingauthorityoftheijazaisanindividualprofessorwhereastheuniversitydegreewasgrantedbyacorporateentity.[12] TheUniversityofBolognainItaly,regardedastheoldestuniversityinEurope,wasthefirstinstitutiontoconferthedegreeofDoctorinCivilLawinthelate12thcentury;italsoconferredsimilardegreesinothersubjects,includingmedicine.[13] TheUniversityofParisusedtheterm"master"foritsgraduates,apracticeadoptedbytheEnglishuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridge,aswellastheancientScottishuniversitiesofStAndrews,Glasgow,AberdeenandEdinburgh. Emergenceofthebachelor'sdegree[edit] InthemedievalEuropeanuniversities,candidateswhohadcompletedthreeorfouryearsofstudyintheprescribedtextsofthetrivium(grammar,rhetoricandlogic)andthequadrivium(arithmetic,geometry,astronomyandmusic),togetherknownastheLiberalArtsandwhohadsuccessfullypassedexaminationsheldbytheirmaster,wouldbeadmittedtothedegreeofBachelorofArts,fromtheLatinbaccalaureus,atermpreviouslyusedofasquire(i.e.,apprentice)toaknight.FurtherstudyandinparticularsuccessfulparticipationinandthenmoderatingofdisputationswouldearnonetheMasterofArtsdegree,fromtheLatinmagister,"master"(typicallyindicatingateacher),entitlingonetoteachthesesubjects.MastersofArtswereeligibletoenterstudyunderthe"higherfaculties"ofLaw,MedicineorTheologyandearnfirstabachelor'sandthenmasterordoctor'sdegreesinthesesubjects.Thusadegreewasonlyasteponthewaytobecomingafullyqualifiedmaster–hencetheEnglishword"graduate",whichisbasedontheLatingradus("step"). Theevolutionoftheterminologyofdegrees[edit] Thenamingofdegreeseventuallybecamelinkedwiththesubjectsstudied.Scholarsinthefacultiesofartsorgrammarbecameknownas"master",butthoseintheology,medicineandlawwereknownas"doctor".Asstudyintheartsoringrammarwasanecessaryprerequisitetostudyinsubjectssuchastheology,medicineandlaw,thedegreeofdoctorassumedahigherstatusthanthemaster'sdegree.ThisledtothemodernhierarchyinwhichtheDoctorofPhilosophy(Ph.D.),whichinitspresentformasadegreebasedonresearchanddissertationisadevelopmentfrom18th-and19th-centuryGermanuniversities,isamoreadvanceddegreethantheMasterofArts(M.A.).ThepracticeofusingthetermdoctorforPhDsdevelopedwithinGermanuniversitiesandspreadacrosstheacademicworld. TheFrenchterminologyistiedcloselytotheoriginalmeaningsoftheterms.Thebaccalauréat(cf."bachelor")isconferreduponFrenchstudentswhohavesuccessfullycompletedtheirsecondaryeducationandadmitsthestudenttouniversity.Whenstudentsgraduatefromuniversity,theyareawardedlicence,muchasthemedievalteachingguildswouldhavedoneandtheyarequalifiedtoteachinsecondaryschoolsorproceedtohigher-levelstudies.Spainhadasimilarstructure:theterm"Bachiller"wasusedforthosewhofinishedthesecondaryorhigh-schoolleveleducation,knownas"Bachillerato".ThestandardSpanishuniversity5-yearsdegreewas"Licenciado",(althoughtherewereafew3-yearsassociatedegreescalled"diplomaturas",fromwherethe"diplomados"couldmovetostudyarelatedlicenciatura).Thehighestlevelwas"Doctor". Degreesawardedbyinstitutionsotherthanuniversities[edit] Inthepast,degreeshavealsobeendirectlyissuedbyauthorityofthemonarchorbyabishop,ratherthananyeducationalinstitution.Thispracticehasmostlydiedout.InGreatBritain,LambethDegreesarestillawardedbytheArchbishopofCanterbury.[14]TheArchbishopofCanterbury'srighttograntdegreesisderivedfromPeter'sPenceActof1533whichempoweredtheArchbishoptograntdispensationspreviouslygrantedbythePope.[15] Amongeducationalinstitutions,StDavid'sCollege,Lampeterwasgrantedlimiteddegreeawardingpowersbyroyalcharterinthenineteenthcentury,despitenotbeingauniversity.UniversityCollegeNorthStaffordshirewasalsogranteddegreeawardingpowersonitsfoundationin1949,despitenotbecomingauniversity(astheUniversityofKeele)until1962.FollowingtheEducationReformAct1988,manyeducationalinstitutionsotherthanuniversitieshavebeengranteddegreeawardingpowers,includinghighereducationcollegesandcollegesoftheUniversityofLondon(manyofwhicharenoweffectivelyuniversitiesintheirownright).[16] Academicdress[edit] Mainarticle:Academicdress Inmostcountries,gaininganacademicdegreeentitlestheholdertoassumedistinctiveacademicdressparticulartotheawardinginstitution,identifyingthestatusoftheindividualwearingthem. Lawsongrantinganduseofdegrees[edit] Seealso:Unaccreditedinstitutionsofhighereducation Inmanycountriesdegreesmayonlybeawardedbyinstitutionsauthorisedtodosobythenationalorregionalgovernment.Frequentlygovernmentswillalsoregulatetheuseofuniversityinnamesofbusinesses.Thisapproachisfollowed,forexample,byAustralia[17]andtheUnitedKingdom.[18]Theuseoffakedegreesbyindividuals,eitherobtainedfromabogusinstitutionorsimplyinvented,isoftencoveredbyfraudlaws.[19][20] Indicatingearneddegrees[edit] Dependingoncultureandthedegreeearned,degreesmaybeindicatedbyapre-nominaltitle,post-nominalletters,achoiceofeitherornotindicatedatall.IncountriesinfluencedbytheUK,post-nominallettersarethenorm,withonlydoctoratesgrantingatitle,whiletitlesarethenorminmanynorthernEuropeancountries. Dependingonthecultureandthepurposeofthelisting,onlythehighestdegree,aselectionofdegreesoralldegreesmightbelisted.Theawardinginstitutionmayalsobeshownanditmightbespecifiedifadegreewasathonourslevel,particularlywherethehonoursdegreeisaseparatequalificationfromtheordinarybachelor'sdegree.[21] FormemberinstitutionsoftheAssociationofCommonwealthUniversities,thereisastandardlistofabbreviationsforuniversitynamesgivenintheCommonwealthUniversitiesYearbook,butinpracticemanyvariationsareusedandtheYearbooknotesthattheabbreviationsusedmaynotmatchthoseusedbytheuniversitiesconcerned.[22]ForsomeBritishuniversitiesitistraditionaltouseLatinabbreviations,notably'Oxon'and'Cantab'fortheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgerespectively,[23][24]inspiteofthesehavingbeensupersededbyEnglish'Oxf'and'Camb'inofficialuniversityusage,[25]particularlyinordertodistinguishtheOxbridgeMAfromanearnedMA.[26]OtherLatinabbreviationscommonlyusedinclude'Cantuar'forLambethdegrees(awardedbytheArchbishopofCanterbury),[25]'Dunelm'forDurhamUniversity,[27][28]'Ebor'fortheUniversityofYork[29]and'Exon'fortheUniversityofExeter.[30]TheAncientuniversitiesofScotlandandtheUniversityofLondonhaveabbreviationsthatarethesameinEnglishandLatin.(SeeUniversitiesintheUnitedKingdom§ Post-nominalabbreviationsforamorecompletelistanddiscussionofabbreviationsforBritishuniversities.) Confusioncanresultfromuniversitiessharingsimilarnames,e.g.theUniversityofYorkintheUKandYorkUniversityinCanadaorNewcastleUniversityintheUKandtheUniversityofNewcastleinAustralia.Inthiscase,theconventionistoincludeacountryabbreviationwiththeuniversity'sname.Forexample,'York(Can.)'and'York(UK)'or'Newc(UK)'and'Newc(Aus.)arecommonlyusedtodenotedegreesconferredbytheseuniversitieswherethepotentialforconfusionexists,[31]andinstitutionnamesaregiveninthisformintheCommonwealthUniversitiesYearbook.[22] Abbreviationsusedfordegreesvarybetweencountriesandinstitutions,e.g.MSindicatesMasterofScienceintheUSandplacesfollowingAmericanusage,butMasterofSurgeryintheUKandmostCommonwealthcountries,wherethestandardabbreviationforMasterofScienceisMSc.CommonabbreviationsincludeBAandMAforBachelorandMasterofArts,BS/BScandMS/MScforBachelorandMasterofScience,MDforDoctorofMedicineandPhDforDoctorofPhilosophy.[32][33] Onlinedegree[edit] Mainarticle:Onlinedegree Anonlinedegreeisanacademicdegree(usuallyacollegedegree,butsometimesthetermincludeshighschooldiplomasandnon-degreecertificateprograms)thatcanbeearnedprimarilyorentirelyonadistancelearningbasisthroughtheuseofanInternet-connectedcomputer,ratherthanattendingcollegeinatraditionalcampussetting.Improvementsintechnology,theincreasinguseoftheInternetworldwideandtheneedforpeopletohaveflexibleschoolschedulesthatenablethemtoworkwhileattendingschoolhaveledtoaproliferationofonlinecollegesthatawardassociate's,bachelor's,master'sanddoctoraldegrees.[34] Degreesystemsbyregions[edit] Asia[edit] Bangladesh,IndiaandPakistan[edit] BangladeshandIndiamostlyfollowthecolonialeraBritishsystemforclassificationofdegrees.However,PakistanhasrecentlyswitchedtoUSmodeloftwoyearsassociatedegreeandfouryearbachelor'sdegreeprogram.Thearts,referringtotheperformingartsandliterature,havethecorrespondingdegrees:BachelorofArts(BA)andtheMasterofArts(MA).Managementdegreesarealsoclassifiedunder'Arts'butisnowadaysconsideredamajornewstream,BachelorofBusinessAdministration(BBA)andMasterOfBusinessAdministration(MBA).Sciencereferringtothebasicsciencesandnaturalscience(Biology,Physics,Chemistryetc.)thecorrespondingdegreeareBachelorofScience(B.Sc.)anditsmasteriscalledMasterofScience(M.Sc.).AnothernewsetofInformationTechnologydegreeconferredspeciallyinthefieldofcomputerscience,BachelorofScienceininformationtechnology(B.Sc.IT.)andMasterofScienceininformationtechnology(M.Sc.IT.).TheengineeringdegreeinIndiafollowstwonomenclatures,BachelorofEngineering(B.E.)andBachelorofTechnology(B.Tech.).Bothrepresentbachelor'sdegreeinengineering.InPakistan,engineeringdegreesareBachelorofEngineering(B.E.)andBachelorofScienceinEngineering(B.S./B.Sc.Engineering).Botharesameincurriculum,durationandpatternanddiffersonlyinnomenclature.TheengineeringdegreeinBangladeshisBachelorofScienceinEngineering(B.Sc.Engineering).MedicalDegree–BachelorofMedicine&BachelorofSurgery(MBBS),DentalDegree–BachelorofDentalSurgery(BDS),ComputerApplicationDegree–BachelorofComputerApplication(BCA)andMasterofComputerApplication(MCA). SriLanka[edit] SriLankaasmanyothercommonwealthcountriesfollowtheBritishsystemwithitsowndistinctions.DegreesareapprovedbytheUniversityGrantsCommission. Africa[edit] Tunisia[edit] GradinginTunisiaisdoneonascaleof0–20.Thepassinggradeis10outof20whichis50%ofthecompletemark;20.Thisgradingsystemisusedfrommiddle-schooluptouniversitylevel.APhDthesisisevengradedoutof20. Togetaheadontheacademicladder,oneisstrictlyassessednumerically.Thatis;ifyouareaBAholderapplyingforanMAprogramyouwillbeadmittedaccordingtohowhighyourgradeswereduringyourundergraduateyears. Level4coursescomeintheformof1styearofabachelorsprogrammeorHNC(HigherNationalCertificate).Dependingonthetypeofassociatedegreeastudentmaybeabletostarttheir2ndyearofbachelors(Thecoursemustbethesameastheonetheyareapplyingfor) SouthAfrica[edit] InSouthAfrica,grades(whicharealsocommonlyreferredtoas"marks")arepresentedasapercentage,whereanythingbelow50%isafailure.Therearegenerallyopportunitiestorewritetheexamifthegradeofyourfirstattemptwassufficienttowarrantanadditionalattempt.Eachinstitutionindependentlydetermineswhichgradeswarrantanadditionalattempt. AdegreeinalmostanydisciplineisavailableatoneoranotherinstitutioninSouthAfrica.Someinstitutionsarerenownedforcertaindisciplines.Alphabetically,themajordisciplinesacrossthecountryare;Arts,Commerce,Engineering,Law,Medicine,ScienceandTheology. Thereareseverallevelsofdegreeswhichareawardedaccordingtoacredit-basedsystemdevisedbytheSAQA(SouthAfricanQualificationsAgency:[1]). EachlevelofdegreehasadifferentlevelofNQFrating,forexample,anundergraduate(3-year)degreeinScienceisratedasanNQFlevel6,andanadditionalyearinthatspecificdisciplinewillwarranttheawardingofanNQFlevel8(orhonoursdegree). Kenya[edit] InKenya,thefirstundergraduatedegreestartsafterstudentshavesuccessfullycompletedfouryearsofthesecondaryschooleducation,andattainedatleastC+(55-59%)inKenyaCertificateofSecondaryEducation(KCSE). Forstudentspursuingadegreecertificateinbachelorofscienceengineering,suchasB.Sc.MechanicalEngineering,B.Sc.MechatronicsEngineering,B.Sc.ElectricalandElectronicsEngineering,andCivilEngineering,theyarerequiredtojoindegreeprogramsthatareaccreditedbyengineersboardofkenyaandcommissionforuniversityeducation.B.Sc.degreeinengineeringtakesfiveyears. Adegreeinmedicineorsurgerymaytakesixtosevenyearstocomplete. Adegreeineducationormanagementtakesaroundfouryears. Thefirstpostgraduatedegree,master’sdegree,startsafterstudentshavecompletedanundergraduatedegree.Forstudentstojoinamaster’sdegree,theymusthaveattainedatleastasecondclasshonorsupperdivision(60-69%)orlowerdivisionplusatleasttwoyearsofrelevantexperience.Mostmastercoursedegreestaketwoyearsandhavenospecificfinalgrading.Usually,inanengineeringmaster’sdegree,astudentisrequiredtopublishatleastonescientificpaperinapeerreviewedjournal. Fordoctorofphilosophydegrees,studentsmusthavecompletedarelevantmaster’sdegree.Studentsarerequiredtocarryoutasupervisedscientificstudyforatleastthreeyearsandpublishatleasttwoscientificfirst-authorpapersinpeerreviewedjournals,relevanttotheirareaofstudy. Europe[edit] Mainarticles:Bolognaprocess,EuropeanHigherEducationArea,andEuropeanQualificationsFramework SincetheConventionontheRecognitionofQualificationsconcerningHigherEducationintheEuropeanRegionin1997andtheBolognadeclarationin1999,highereducationsystemsinEuropearebeingharmonisedthroughtheBolognaprocess,basedonathree-cyclehierarchyofdegrees:Bachelor's/Licence–Master's–Doctorate,withthelateradditionofa"shortcycle(withinthefirstcycle)"tocoversub-bachelor'squalifications.Thissystemisgraduallyreplacingthetwo-stagesystempreviouslyusedinsomecountriesandiscombinedwithotherelementssuchastheEuropeanCreditTransferandAccumulationSystem(ECTS)andtheuseofDiplomaSupplementstomakecomparisonsbetweenqualificationseasier. TheEuropeanHigherEducationArea(EHEA)wasformallyestablishedin2010andasofSeptember2016has50members.[35]ImplementationofthevariouselementsoftheEHEAvaries.Twenty-fourcountrieshavefullyimplementedanationalqualificationsframeworkandafurthertenhaveaframeworkbuthavenotyetcertifieditagainsttheoverarchingframework;in38countriesECTScreditsareusedforallhighereducationprogrammes;31countrieshavefullyimplementeddiplomasupplements;andonly11countrieshaveincludedallthemajorpointsoftheLisbonRecognitionConventioninnationallegislation.[36] From2008,theEuropeanUnionhasbeendevelopingtheEuropeanQualificationsFramework(EQF).Thisisaneight-levelframeworkdesignedtoallowcross-referencingofthevariousnationalqualificationsframeworks.Whileitisnotspecifictohighereducation,thetopfourlevels(5–8)correspondtotheshortcycle,firstcycle,secondcycleandthirdcycleoftheEHEA.[37][38] Austria[edit] InAustria,therearecurrentlytwoparallelsystemsofacademicdegrees: thetraditionaltwo-cyclesystemofMagister/DiplomfollowedbytheDoctorateand thethree-cyclesystemofBachelor,MasterandDoctorateasdefinedbytheBolognaprocess. Withafewexceptions,thetwo-cycledegreesystemwillbephasedoutby2010.[39]Someoftheestablisheddegreenaminghas,however,beenpreserved,allowinguniversitiestoawardthe"Diplom-Ingenieur"(andforawhilealsothe"Magister")tograduatesofthenew-styleMasterprogrammes. CzechRepublic[edit] TheCzechRepublicimplementedtheBolognaprocesssotherearebasicallythreedegrees:Bachelor(3years),Master(2yearsafterBachelor)andDoctor(4yearsafterMaster). Therearealsovoluntaryacademictitlescalled"smalldoctorates"(e.g.RNDr.fornaturalsciences,PhDr.forphilosophy,JUDr.forlawetc.)achievedafterrigorosumexam.Medicalstudentsdon'tgetbachelor'sormaster'sdegrees,insteadtheystudysixyearsandafterobligatoryrigorousexamtheygettitleMUDr.(equivalenttoMDdegree)[clarificationneeded]orMDDr.fordentistsorMVDr.forveterinaryphysicians.Theycanalsoget"bigdoctorate"(Ph.D.)afteranotherthreeor(moreoften)fouryearsofstudies. Bachelor'sdegrees,master'sdegreesandsmalldoctoratesintheformofshortcuts(Bc.,Mgr.,Ing.,...)arelistedbeforetheperson'sname;aDoctor'sdegree(Ph.D.)islistedaftername(e.g.MUDr.JanNovák,Ph.D.).Therearemoredegreesthatusedtobeawarded,butyoucanstillencounterthem.Czechsareveryproudoftheiracademicdegreesandtitlesthereforeitsomissionisconsidereddisrespectful.[clarificationneeded] Denmark[edit] Seealso:Bolognaprocess Beforetheadaptationtointernationalstandards,thelowestdegreethatwouldnormallybestudiedatuniversitiesinDenmarkwasequivalenttoamaster'sdegree(kandidatgrad).Officially,bachelor'sdegreeswasalwaysobtainedafter3years'universitystudies. Variousmedium-length(2–4years)professionaldegreeshavebeenadaptedsotheynowhavestatusasprofessionalbachelor'sdegreesofvaryinglengthandopposedtoacademicbachelor'sdegreestheyareconsideredtobe"applied"degrees.Aprofessionalbachelor'sdegreeis180or210or240ECTS-points.[40] Theacademicdegreesavailableatuniversitiesare:[40] bachelori(bachelor'sdegree=180ECTS-points) cand.(master'sdegree=120ECTS-points,exceptMedicine,whichis180ECTS-pointsandVeterinaryMedicine,whichis150ECTS-points) ph.d.(PhDdegree=normally180ECTS-points) dr.(higherdoctoraldegree=normallyafteraminimumof5yearsofindividualandoriginalresearch) Finland[edit] Historically,theFinnishhighereducationsystemisderivedfromtheGermansystem.Thecurrentsystemofhighereducationcomprisestwotypesofhighereducationinstitutions,theuniversitiesandthepolytechnics,manyofwhomrefertothemselvesasuniversitiesofappliedsciences(UAS)[41][42]Withtheexceptionoffewfieldssuchasmedicineanddentistry,theFinnishsystemofhighereducationdegreesisincompliancewiththeBolognaprocess.Universitiesawardbachelor'sdegrees(kandidaatti/kandidat),Master'sdegrees(maisteri/magister)anddoctoraldegrees(lisensiaatintutkinto/licentiatexamenandtohtorintutkinto/doktorexamen).Inmostfieldsthesystemofdoctoraldegreesistwo-tier,thedegreeoflicentiateisanindependentacademicdegreebutcompletingthedegreeofdoctordoesnotrequirecompletionofalicentiatedegree.Thepolytechnics(universitiesofappliedsciences)havetherighttoawardbachelor'sandmaster'sdegrees;thedegreetitlesaredistinctfromthetitlesusedforuniversitydegrees. Ingeneral,studentswhoareadmittedtobachelorstudiesatauniversityhavetherighttocontinuetostudiesatmasterlevel.Atpolytechnics,therighttocontinuetomaster-levelstudieshastobeappliedforseparatelyandthereisalsoaworkexperiencerequirement.Themajorityofmaster'sdegreeholdershavegraduatedfromuniversity. Thedegreesawardedbytheuniversitiesandpolytechnicsareatparbylaw,butthecontentandorientationofstudiesisdifferent.Amaster'sdegreeobtainedatapolytechnicgivesthesameacademicrighttocontinuestudiesatdoctorallevelasamaster'sdegreeobtainedatauniversity. France[edit] Degree Diploma Doctorate Doctorate'sDiploma Master Universities ÉcolessupérieuresorGrandesécoles General MedicalandParamedical Accounting Art Business Engineering Military PublicAffairs VeterinaryScience Others Master'sDiplomaDEADESS(bothdiplomasphasedoutandnolongerdelivered) diplômedeformationapprofondie(Medicine,Midwifery,Odontology,Pharmacy) diplômesupérieurdecomptabilitéetdegestion[43] ArchitectStateDiploma[44]diplômenationalsupérieurd'artsplastiques[45]DiplomaoftheÉcolenationalesupérieuredesartsdécoratifs[46]diplômenationalsupérieurd'expressionplastique[47]GraduatediplomasoftheConservatoiredeParis[48] DiplomasoftheuniversitéParis-Dauphine[49]DiplomasofsomeBusinessSchools[50] Engineer'sdegreediplômedemanagementetcontrôledutraficaérienanddiplômed’ingénieriedessystèmesélectroniquesdelasécuritéaérienneoftheÉcolenationaledel'aviationcivile[51][52] DiplomaoftheÉcolespécialemilitairedeSaint-Cyr[53] DiplomaofanInstitutd'étudespolitiques diplômed’étudesfondamentalesvétérinaires[54] diplômevisé Diplomaofspecializedschools(Communication,Journalism,Film...) Licenceandbachelor Licenciate'sDiploma UniversityBachelorofTechnology'sDiploma diplômedeformationgénérale(Medicine,Midwifery,Odontology,Pharmacy)[55]NurseStateDiplomaErgotherapistStateDiploma[56] diplômedecomptabilitéetdegestion[57] diplômed’étudesenarchitecture[58]UndergraduatediplomasoftheConservatoiredeParis DiplomaoftheÉcolemilitaireinterarmes[59] diplômevisé Diplomaofspecializedschools(Communication,Journalism,Film...) Baccalaureate Baccalauréat'sDiploma TheFrenchnationaleducationsystemmakesadistinctionbetweenadiplômenational("nationaldegree")anddiplômeuniversitaire("universitydegree").Theformer,whichareconsideredhigherstatus,arecontrolledbythestateandissuedbyuniversitiesonbehalfoftheresponsibleministry;thelatterarecontrolledandgrantedbytheuniversitiesthemselves.[60]Additionally,privateuniversitiesandschoolsmayberecognisedbythestatewithadiplômevisé("recogniseddegree")andthen,afterfiveyearsofrecognition,havetheirdegreesvalidatedbythestate,thevalidationhavingtoberenewedeverysixyears.[61] Historically,academicdegreeswereorientatedtowardsresearchandthevocationaleducationsystemawardedonlydiplomas.SincetheimplementationoftheBolognaProcessinFrance,thingsaregoingtowardsasimplification:schoolscontinuetodelivertheirowndiplomas,buttheStaterecognitionanddegreeawardingisfarmorerangedthanbefore. DiplomacoursessuchastheUniversityBachelorofTechnology'sDiploma(bacheloruniversitairedetechnologie;BUT)isrecognisedas"professionnalbachelorcycle"qualificationsworth180ECTScredits;theTechnologist'sCertificate(brevetdetechniciansupérieur;BTS)isnowrecognisedas"shortcycle"qualificationsworth120ECTScredits,allowingprogressionfromthesetoacademicqualifications.[62]Nonetheless,therearediplomasinFrancewithnodegreerecognition,e.g.specificdiplomasdesignedbyvariousinstitutionswithnorecognitionfromtheMinistryofEducation,suchasthemastèrespécialisé[63]ortheSciencesPoBachelor. Therecogniseddegreesfallinthreelevels,followingtheQualificationsFrameworkoftheEuropeanHigherEducationArea.Thesearethelicence(firstcycle),master(secondcycle)anddoctorat(thirdcycle).Alllicencedegreesare3years(180ECTScredits)inlengthandallmaster'sdegreesare2years(120ECTScredits)inlength.Therearealso5year(300ECTScredits)engineer'sdegrees,whicharemaster'sdegree.Inadditiontothedoctorate,whichisalwaysaresearchdegree,theDiplômed'EtatdedocteurenmédicineandtheDiplômed'Etatdedocteurvétérinairearealsoconsideredthirdcyclequalifications.[64] Germany[edit] TraditionallyinGermany,studentsgraduatedafterfourtosixyearseitherwithaMagisterdegreeinsocialsciences,humanities,linguisticsandtheartsorwithaDiplomdegreeinnaturalsciences,economics,businessadministration,politicalscience,sociology,theologyandengineering.Thosedegreeswerethefirstandatthesametimehighestnon-PhD/Doctorate-titleinmanydisciplinesbeforeitsgradualreplacementbyotherAnglo-Saxon-inspiredmaster'sandbachelor'sdegreesundertheBolognaprocess.TheMagisterandDiplomawardedbyuniversities,bothofwhichrequireafinalthesis,areconsideredequivalenttoamaster'sdegree,althoughtheDiplomawardedbyaFachhochschule(universityofappliedsciences)isatbachelor'sdegreelevel.[65] AspecialkindofexaminationistheStaatsexamen(StateExamination).Itisnotanacademicdegreebutagovernmentlicensingexaminationthatfuturedoctors,dentists,teachers,lawyers(solicitors),judges,publicprosecutors,patentattorneysandpharmacistshavetopassinordertobeeligibletoworkintheirprofession.Studentsusuallystudyatuniversityforthreetosixyears,dependingonthefield,beforetheytakethefirstStaatsexamen.Whilethisisnormallyatmaster'slevel,afewcourses(e.g.primaryandlowersecondarylevelteaching),whichhaveastandardstudyperiodofthreeyears,areassignedtobachelor'slevel.[66]AfterthefirstStaatsexamen,teachersandlawyersgothroughaformofpupillage,theVorbereitungsdienst,fortwoyears,beforetheyareabletotakethesecondStaatsexamen,whichteststheirpracticalabilitiesintheirjobs.[65]AtsomeinstitutionspharmacistsandjuristscanchoosewhethertobeawardedthefirstStaatsexamenoramaster'sdegree(orformerlytheDiplom). Since1999,thetraditionaldegreeshavebeenreplacedbybachelor's(Bachelor)andmaster's(Master)degreesaspartoftheBolognaprocess.ThemainreasonsforthischangearetomakedegreesinternationallycomparableandtointroducedegreestotheGermansystemwhichtakelesstimetocomplete(GermanstudentstypicallytookfiveyearsormoretoearnaMagisterorDiplom).Someuniversitieswereinitiallyresistanttothischange,consideringitadisplacementofavenerabletraditionforthepuresakeofglobalization.However,universitieshadtofulfillthenewstandardbytheendof2007.EnrollmentintoDiplomandMagisterprogramsisnolongerpossible.However,programsleadingtoStaatsexamendidusuallynotmakethetransitiontoBolognadegrees. Doctoratesareissuedwithvariousdesignations,dependingonthefaculty:e.g.,DoktorderNaturwissenschaften(DoctorofNaturalScience);DoktorderRechtswissenschaften(DoctorofLaw);DoktorderMedizin(DoctorofMedicine);DoktorderPhilosophie(DoctorofPhilosophy),tonamejustafew.MultipledoctoratesandhonorarydoctoratesareoftenlistedandevenusedinformsofaddressinGerman-speakingcountries.ADiplom,Magister,Master'sorStaatsexamenstudentcanproceedtoadoctorate.Wellqualifiedbachelor'sgraduatescanalsoenroldirectlyintoPhDprogramsafteraproceduretodeterminetheiraptitudeadministeredbytheadmittinguniversity.[67]Thedoctoraldegree(e.g.,Dr.rer.nat.,Dr.phil.andothers)isthehighestacademicdegreeinGermanyandgenerallyaresearchdegree.ThedegreeDr.med.formedicaldoctorshastobevieweddifferently;medicalstudentsusuallywritetheirdoctoralthesesrightaftertheyhavecompletedstudies,withoutanypreviousconductedscientificresearch,justasstudentsinotherdisciplineswriteaDiplom,MagisterorMaster'sthesis.[citationneeded]Higherdoctorates,suchastheD.Sc.degreeintheUK,arenotpresentintheGermansystem. However,sometimesincorrectlyregardedasadegree,theHabilitationisahigheracademicqualificationinGermany,Austria,SwitzerlandandtheCzechRepublicthatallowsfurtherteachingandresearchendorsementafteradoctorate.Itisearnedbywritingasecondthesis(theHabilitationsschrift)orpresentingaportfoliooffirst-authorpublicationsinanadvancedtopic.TheexactrequirementsforsatisfyingaHabilitationdependonindividualuniversities.The"habil.",asitisabbreviatedtorepresentthatahabilitationhasbeenawardedafterthedoctorate,wastraditionallytheconventionalqualificationforservingatleastasaPrivatdozent(e.g."PDDr.habil.")(seniorlecturer)inanacademicprofessorship.SomeGermanuniversitiesnolongerrequiretheHabilitation,althoughpreferencemaystillbegiventoapplicantswhohavethiscredential,foracademicpostsinthemoretraditionalfields. Greece[edit] Seealso:HighereducationinGreece InGreeceaccesstouniversityispossibleafternationalexams(PanhellenicExams). TheGreekacademicdegreesare: Ptychio(EQLLevel6orbachelor'sdegree) Diploma(EQLLevel7orIntegratedmaster'sdegree) MetaptychiakoDiplomaEidikefsis(EQLLevel7ormaster'sdegree) DidaktorikoDiploma(EQLLevel8orDoctorate) Ireland[edit] IrelandoperatesunderaNationalFrameworkofQualifications(NFQ). TheschoolleavingqualificationattainedbystudentsiscalledtheLeavingCertificate.ItisconsideredLevel4–5ontheframework.Thisqualificationisthetraditionalrouteofentryintothirdleveleducation.TherearealsoLevel5qualificationsincertainvocationalsubjects(e.g.Level5CertificateinRestaurantOperations)awardedbytheFurtherEducationandTrainingAwardsCouncil(FETAC).AdvancedCertificatesatlevel6arealsoawardedbyFETAC. TheHigherEducationandTrainingAwardsCouncil(HETAC)awardthefollowing: AhighercertificateatLevel6; Anordinarybachelor'sdegreeatLevel7; Anhonoursbachelor'sdegreeorhigherdiplomaatLevel8; Amaster'sdegreeorpostgraduatediplomaatLevel9; Adoctoraldegreeorhigherdoctorateatlevel10.[68] Thesearecompletedininstitutesoftechnologyoruniversities. Italy[edit] Seealso:HighereducationinItaly InItalyaccesstouniversityispossibleaftergainingtheDiplomadiMaturitàat19yearsofage,following5yearsofstudyinaspecifichighschoolfocusedoncertainsubjects(e.g.liceoclassicofocusedonclassicalsubjects,includingphilosophy,ancientGreekandLatin;liceoscientificofocusedonscientificsubjectssuchasMaths,Chemistry,BiologyandPhysicsbutalsoincludingphilosophy,ancientLatinandItalianLiterature;liceolinguisticofocusedonForeignLanguagesandLiterature;istitutotecnicofocusedonpracticalandtheoreticalsubjectssuchasMechanics,Aerospace,Shipbuilding,Electronics,Computerscience,Telecommunications,Chemistry,Biology,Fashionindustry,Foodindustry,Buildingtechnology,LawandEconomy). Aftergainingthediplomaonecanenteruniversityandenrolinanycurriculum(e.g.physics,medicine,chemistry,engineering,architecture):allhighschooldiplomasallowaccesstoanyuniversitycurriculum,althoughmostuniversitieshavepre-admissiontests. In2011,Italyintroducedaqualificationsframework,knownastheQuadrodeiTitoliItaliani(QTI),tiedtothethreecyclesoftheBolognaProcess.Thistiedtogetherinathree-levelsystemboththenewqualificationsintroducedaspartoftheBolognaprocessandtheolder,pre-Bolognaqualificationsandcoversqualificationsfromuniversityinstitutionsandhighereducationinstitutionsforfinearts,musicanddance(AFAMinstitutions).[69]Inadditiontoacademicdegrees,manyprofessionalqualificationsaretiedtotheQTIatthedifferentlevels.[70] Thefirstlevel,tiedtothefirstcycleoftheBolognaProcess,coversthelaurea(bachelor'sdegree)inuniversitiesandtheDiplomaaccademicodiprimolivelloinAFAMinstitutions.[71]TheolderqualificationsmappedtothislevelaretheDiplomauniversitarioandtheDiplomadiscuolediretteafinispeciali(SDAFS)fromuniversitiesandtheDiplomadiConservatorio,DiplomadiIstitutoMusicalePareggiato,Diplomadell'AccademiadiBelleArti,Diplomadell'IstitutoSuperioredelleIndustrieArtistiche(ISIA),Diplomadell'AccademiaNazionalediDanzaandDiplomadell'AccademiaNazionalediArteDrammaticafromAFAMinstitutions.[72]Thelaureaisobtainedafterthreeyearsofstudy(180ECTScredits)andgivestheacademictitleofdottore;[71]theolderuniversityqualificationsatthisleveltooktwotothreeyears,withthreeyearcoursesgrantingthetitleofdottore.[72] Thesecondlevel,tiedtothesecondcycleoftheBolognaProcess,coverstheLaureamagistraleandthelaureaspecialisticainuniversityinstitutionsandtheDiplomaaccademicodisecondolivelloinAFAMinstitutions.[71]TheoldDiplomadilaureaismappedtothislevel.[72]TheLaureamagistraleandthelaureaspecialisticaareobtainedaftertwofurtheryearsofstudy(120ECTScredits)andgivetheacademictitleofdottoremagistrale.[71]TheoldDiplomadilaureatookfourtosixyearsbutwasaccesseddirectlyfromschool,withapossiblereductionbyoneyearforthosewitharelateddiplomaandalsograntedthetitleofdottoremagistrale.[72] Thethirdlevel,tiedtothethirdcycleoftheBolognaProcess,coverstheDottoratodiricercainuniversityinstitutionsandtheDiplomaaccademicodiformazioneallaricercainAFAMinstitutions.[71]TheoldDottoratodiricercaandDiplomadispecializzazionearetiedtothislevel.[72]TheDottoratodiricerca,underbothnewandoldsystems,takesaminimumofthreeyearsafterthelaureamagistralie/specialisticaandgivestheacademictitlesofDottorediRicerca(Dott.Ric.)andPhD.[71][72]TheoldDiplomadispecializzazionetooktwotosixyearsandgavetheacademictitleofSpecialista.[72] UniversitiesinItalyofferanumberofotherqualificationsincludingtheMasteruniversitariodiprimolivello(1year/60ECTScredits,2ndcyclequalification)andtheMasteruniversitariodisecondolivello(1year/60ECTScredits,3rdcyclequalification),followingonfromthelaureaandthelaureamagistrale/specialisticarespectively.ThesedonotgiveaccesstothePhD.TheDiplomadispecializzazione,whichisofferedinafewspecificprofessions,takestwotosixyearsandgivesthetitleofspecialista.TheDiplomadiperfezionamentoisauniversitycertificate,aimedatprofessionaltrainingorinspecificstudyfields,whichusuallytakesoneyear;itisnotallocatedalevelontheframework.[73] AFAMinstitutionsmayofferDiplomadiperfezionamentooMasterandDiplomaaccademicodispecializzazione.Theseareoneyearandtwoyearqualificationsrespectivelyandmaybeofferedatsecondcycleorthirdcyclelevel,distinguishedbyadding(I)or(II)afterthequalificationname.HigherSchoolsforLanguageMediatorsoffertheDiplomadimediatorelinguistico,afirstcycledegreetakingthreeyears(180ECTScredits),whichgivesaccesstothelaureaspecialistica.SpecialisationInstitutes/SchoolsinPsychoterapyoffertheDiplomadispecializzazioneinpsicoterapia,athirdcyclequalificationtakingatleastfouryearsandrequiringalaureamagistrale/specialisticaineitherPsychologyorMedicineandSurgery,alongwithprofessionalregistration.[73] Netherlands[edit] Seealso:EducationintheNetherlands IntheNetherlands,thestructureofacademicstudieswasalteredsignificantlyin1982whenthe"Tweefasenstructuur"(TwoPhaseStructure)wasintroducedbytheDutchMinisterofEducation,WimDeetman.Withthistwophasestructureanattemptwasmadetostandardiseallthedifferentstudiesandstructurethemtoanidenticaltimetable.Additionaleffectwasthatstudentswouldbepersuadedstringentlytoproduceresultswithinapresettime-frameorotherwisediscontinuetheirstudies.Thetwophasestructurehasbeenadaptedtoabachelor-masterstructureasaresultoftheBolognaprocess. Admission[edit] InorderforaDutchstudenttogetaccesstoauniversityeducation,thestudentmustcompleteasix-yearpre-universitysecondaryeducationcalled"voorbereidendwetenschappelijkonderwijs"(vwo).Thereareotherroutespossible,butonlyiftheendleveloftheapplicantiscomparabletothetwolevelsisaccesstouniversityeducationisgranted.Forsomestudies,specificendlevelsordisciplinesarerequired,e.g.,graduatingwithoutphysics,biologyandchemistrywillmakeitimpossibletostudymedicine.People21yearsoldorolderwhodonothavetherequiredentrancediplomasmayoptforanentranceexamforbeingadmittedtoahighereducationcurriculum.Inthisexam,theyhavetoprovetheircommandofdisciplinesconsiderednecessaryforpursuingsuchstudy.AfterSeptember1,2002,theywouldbethusadmittedtoaBachelor'scurriculum,nottoaMaster'scurriculum. Forsomestudies[74][75]intheNetherlands,agovernmentaldeterminedlimitedaccessisinplace(althoughunderpoliticalreviewforabolishment,February2011).[76]Thisisalimitationofthenumberofapplicantstoaspecificstudy,thustryingtocontroltheeventualnumberofgraduates.Themostrenownedstudiesfortheirnumerusclaususaremedicineanddentistry.Everyyearacombinationofthehighestpre-universitygraduationgradesandsomeadditionalconditionsdeterminewhocanstartsuchanumerusclaususstudyandwhocannot. AlmostallDutchuniversitiesaregovernmentsupporteduniversities,withonlyveryfewprivatelyowneduniversitiesinexistence(i.e.oneinbusinessandallothersintheology).LeidenUniversityistheoldest,foundedin1575. Pre-Bolognaphases[edit] Beforetheintroductionofthebachelor-masterstructure,almostallacademicstudiesintheNetherlandshadthesamelengthoffouryearsandhadtwophases: The"propedeutischefase"(1–2years):Afterfinishingthisphaseastudentcanfollowanothertwoyears'study,whichgrantsequivalentstotheAnglo-SaxonBSc(BachelorofScience),BA(BachelorofArts)orLLB(BachelorofLaws). The"doctoralefase"(3–4years):Completingthefirstphasesuccessfullygivesthestudentaccesstothesecondphase.Again,failuretofinishwithinthetimegivenwillleadtodiscontinuation.Thisphaseisconcludedwiththe"doctoraalexamen"(doctoralexam).ThisisnotsimilartoanytypeofdoctoralexamthatwouldgrantthestudentwithanytypeofPhDtitle.SuccessfulcompletionhoweverdoesgrantthestudenttheDutchdegreeof"drs.""doctorandus",ir.("ingenieur"–engineer)or"mr."("Meesterinderechten"–masteroflaw).NowadaystheseDutchtitleshavebeenlargelyreplacedbytheAngloSaxontitlesMSc(MasterofScience),MA(MasterofArts)andLLM(MasterofLaws),dependingontheareaofstudy. Formedicalstudentsthe"doctorandus"degreeisnotequivalenttotheEuropeanAngloSaxonpostgraduateresearchdegreeinmedicineofMD(MedicalDoctor).Besidesthetitledoctorandus,thegraduatesoftheCuriuscurriculummayalsobearthetitlearts(physician).Thedoctorandusinmedicinetitleisgrantedafterfouryears(nominaltime)oftheCuriuscurriculum,whilethetitlephysicianisgrantedaftersixyears(nominaltime)ofthatcurriculum.TheDutchphysiciantitleisequaltoaMScdegreeaccordingtotheBolognaprocessandcanbecomparedwiththeMBBSintheUKdegreesystemandtheNorthAmericanMD,butnottheUKMDdegree,whichisaresearchdegree.One-on-oneequivalenceorinterchangeabilityoftheDutchmedicaltitleandMDisoftensuggested.However,officiallytheMDtitleisnotknown,norlegaltouseintheNetherlands.ThecorrectnotationforaDutchphysicianwhocompletedhisorhermedicalstudies,butdidnotpursueadoctor(PhD-like)studyis"drs."(e.g.drs.Jansen,arts)andnot"dr."inmedicine,asoftenusedincorrectly.However,likeintheUnitedKingdom,physiciansholdingthesedegreesarereferredtoas'Doctor'bycourtesy.IntheNetherlands,thereistheinformaltitledokterforphysicians,butnotdoctor(dr.),unlesstheyalsoearnsuchdegreebycompletingaPhDcurriculum.Furthermore,the"doctorandus"degreedoesnotgiveamedicalstudenttherighttotreatpatients;forthisaminimumoftwoyearsadditionalstudy(internships)isrequired.AfterobtainingaMedicalBoardregistration,Dutchphysiciansmustworkanadditionaltwotosixyearsinafieldofexpertisetobecomearegisteredmedicalspecialist.Dutchsurgeonscommonlyareonlygrantedaccesstosurgeontrainingandpositionsafterobtainingadoctorate(PhD)successfully.Inrecentyears,thesix-year(nominaltime)oldCuriuscurriculum(whichofferedthetitlesdoctorandusandphysician)hasbeenreplacedwithathree-year(nominaltime)BachelorCurius+followedbyathree-year(nominaltime)MasterCurius+.Thosewhohadalreadybeguntheirold-styleCuriuscurriculumbeforethatwillstillhavetocompleteitasasix-yearstudy(nominaltime). Adoctorandusinlawusesthetitle"meester"(master,abbreviatedasmr.Jansen)insteadofdrs.andsomestudieslikeforexampletechniqueandagriculturegrantthetitle"ingenieur"(engineer,notedasir.Jansen)insteadofdrs.ThesetitlesasequivalenttoanLL.M(thetitlemr.)andtoaMSc(thetitleir.)andifgotbeforeSeptember1,2002,fromarecognizedDutchuniversity,mayberenderedasM(fromMaster)behindone'sname,insteadofusingthetypicalDutchshortcutsbeforeone'sname.SinceSeptember1,2002,DutchuniversitiesofferspecificBSc,BAorLLBstudiesfollowedbyMSc,MAorLLMstudies,thusintegratingintoandmergingwiththeinternationalscientificcommunity,offeringlectures,otherclasses,seminarsorcompletecurriculainEnglishinsteadofDutch.Accordingtotheirfieldofstudy,MScgraduatesmayuseeitherir.ordrs.beforetheirnames,MAgraduatesmayusedrs.beforetheirnameandLLMgraduatesmayusemr.beforetheirnames,butonlyiftheyreceivedsuchdegreesfromrecognizedDutchuniversities. Notuncommonly,theDutch"drs."abbreviationcancausemuchconfusioninothercountries,sinceitisperceivedasapersonwhohasaPhDinmultipledisciplines.IntheNetherlands,thedegreeMPhilisnotlegallyrecognised. Aftersuccessfullyobtaininga"drs.","ir."or"mr."degree,astudenthastheopportunitytofollowapromotionstudy(informallycalledPhD)toeventuallyobtainadoctorateandsubsequentlythetitle"doctor".Promotionstudiesarestructuredideallyaccordingtoapresettimescheduleof4to6years,duringwhichthestudenthastobementoredbyatleastoneprofessor.Thepromotionstudyhastobeconcludedwithatleastascientificthesis,whichhastobedefendedto"agatheringofhis/herpeers",inpracticetheboardofthefacultywithguestprofessorsfromotherfacultiesand/oruniversitiesadded.Moreandmorecommonandinsomedisciplinesevenmandatory,isthatthestudentwritesandsubmitsscientificpublicationstopeer-reviewedjournals,whicheventuallyneedtobeacceptedforpublication.Thenumberofpublicationsisoftendebatedandvariesconsiderablybetweenthevariousdisciplines.However,inalldisciplinesthestudentisobligatedtoproduceandpublishadissertationorthesisinbookform. Bachelor/masterstructure[edit] AllcurrentDutchacademiceducationprogramsareofferedintheAnglo-Saxonbachelor/masterstructure.Ittakesthreeyearstoearnabachelor'sdegreeandanotheroneortwoyearstoearnamaster'sdegree.Therearethreeofficialacademicbachelortitles(BA,BScandLLB)andthreeofficialmastertitles(MA,MScandLLM).TheseacademictitlesareprotectedbytheDutchgovernment. Academictitlebearing[edit] Afterobtainingadoctorate,Dutchdoctorsmaybeareitherthetitledr.(lowercase)beforeortheletterDfollowingtheirname,butnotbothsimultaneously.[77]Thereisnospecificnotationofthedisciplineinwhichthedoctorateisobtained.AsofJanuary1,2021,thetitle‘PhD’andpost-nominaldegree‘PhD’canalsobeused,andthesearealsolegallyprotected. StackingofthetitlesasseenincountriessuchasGermany(Prof.Dr.Dr.Dr.Gruber)ishighlyuncommonintheNetherlandsandnotwellreceivedculturally.Thosewhohavemultipledoctortitlesmayusedr.mult.beforetheirname,butthisisseldomlyseeninpractice.[77]Thehonoriscausedoctorsmayusedr.h.c.beforetheirname.[77]CombiningdifferentDutchtitles,especiallyindifferentdisciplines,isallowedhowever(e.g.mr.dr.Jansen,dr.mr.Jansen,dr.ir.Jansen,mr.ir.drs.Jansen,mr.ir.Jansen).Theuseofthecombinationir.ing.isfrequent,indicatingoneholdsaHBO,vocational(orprofessional)engineeringdegreetogetherwithanacademicengineeringdegree.[78]Whatisnotallowedis,afterobtainingadoctorate,usingdr.drs.Jansen;dr.Jansenshouldbeusedinstead. AcombinationofaDutchtitlewithaninternationaltitleisnotallowed,exceptforsomelimitednumberofinternationalprofessionaltitles.[78]Thus,oneshouldchooseeitherone'sclassicalDutchtitleorusetheshortcutprovidedbythelawfollowingone'sname(sinceSeptember1,2002itistheotherwayaround:thosewhoholdDutchdegreesasMSc,LLMorMAmayoptionallyusetheold-styleshortcutsbeforetheirnames).[78][79] "Doctors"(dr.)canproceedtoteachatuniversitiesas"universitairdocent"(UD–assistantprofessor).Withtime,experienceand/orachievement,thiscanevolvetoapositionas"universitairhoofddocent"(UHD–associateprofessor).OfficiallyanUHDstillworksunderthesupervisionofa"hoogleraar"(professor),theheadofthedepartment.However,thisisnotagiven;itisalsopossiblethatadepartmentisheadedbya"plain"doctor,basedonknowledge,achievementandexpertise.Thepositionof"hoogleraar"isthehighestpossiblescientificpositionatauniversityandequivalenttotheUS"full"professor.TheDutchprofessor'stitle,notedasprof.JansenorprofessorJansen,isconnectedtoone'semployment.Thismeansthat,shouldtheprofessorleavetheuniversity,heorshealsolosestheprivilegetousethetitleofprofessor.Retiredprofessorsareanexceptionandmaycontinuetonotethetitleinfrontoftheirnameorusethetitleemeritusprofessor(em.prof.).Peoplewhoswitchtoanon-universityjoblosetheirprofessortitleandareonlyallowedtousethe"dr."abbreviation. UnlikesomeotherEuropeancountriessuchasGermany,Dutchacademictitlesareusedrarelyoutsideacademia,holdnovalueineverydaylifeandtypicallyarenotlistedonofficialdocumentation(e.g.passport,driverslicense,(governmental)communication).DutchacademictitleshoweverarelegallyprotectedandcanonlybeusedbygraduatesfromDutchinstitutionsofhighereducation.Illegaluseisconsideredamisdemeanorandsubjecttolegalprosecution.[80][81]HoldersofforeigndegreesthereforeneedspecialpermissionbeforebeingabletousearecognisedDutchtitle,buttheyarefreetousetheirownforeigntitle(untranslated).[82][83][84][85]Inpractice,thePublicDepartmentdoesnotprosecutetheillegaluseofaprotectedtitle(intheNetherlandsappliestheprincipleofopportunity,sosomeknowncrimesarenotprosecuted).[86] Norway[edit] Priorto1980,therewerearound50differentdegreesandcorrespondingeducationprogramswithintheNorwegianhighereducationsystem. DegreeshadtitlesthatincludedthegenderbasedLatintermcandidatus/candidata.ThesecondpartofthetitleusuallyconsistedofaLatinwordcorrespondingtotheprofessionortraining.Forexample,Cand.Mag.(CandidatusMagisterii)required4to5years,Cand.Real.[87](CandidatusRealium)required6yearsofstudyandascientificthesisinaselectsetofscientificdisciplines(realia).Overtheyearsthesewerereplacedgraduallywithdegreesthatweremoreandmoreinternationallycomparableprogramsandcorrespondingtitles.Forexample,thedegreeCand.Scient.replacedCand.Real.intheperiod1985to2003.Thesedegreeswereallretiredin2003infavourofaninternationalsystem. ThereformofhighereducationinNorway,Kvalitetsreformen("TheQualityReform"),waspassedintheNorwegianParliament,theStorting,in2001andcarriedoutduringthe2003/2004academicyear.Itintroducedstandardperiodsofstudyandthetitlesmasterandbachelor(baccalaureus). Thesystemdifferentiatesbetweenafreemaster'sdegreeandamaster'sdegreeintechnology.Thelattercorrespondstotheformersivilingeniørdegree(nottobeconfusedwithadegreeincivilengineering,whichisbutoneofmanydegreeslinkedtothetitlesivilingeniør,whichisstillinusefornewgraduateswhocanchoosetoalsousetheoldtitle).Allpre-2001doctoraldegreetitleswerereplacedwiththetitle"PhilosophicalDoctordegree",writtenphilosophiædoctor(insteadofthetraditionaldoctorphilosophiæ).Thetitledr.philos.isasubstantiallyhigherdegreethanthePhD[citationneeded]andisreservedforthosewhoqualifyforsuchadegreewithoutparticipatinginanorganizeddoctoraldegreeprogram. Poland[edit] InPolandthesystemissimilartotheGermanone. licencjattitle–givenbyauniversity;theequivalentofBachelorofArtsdegreeorBachelorofSciencedegree(dependingonacademicmajor);grantedafteratleast3yearsofstudy. inżynier(inż.)title–Engineer'sdegreegivenbyatechnicaluniversity;grantedafteratleastabout3.5yearsofstudy. magister(mgr)title–theequivalentofaMasterofArtsorMasterofSciencedegree,grantedafter5–6yearsofstudyor2yearsofadditionalstudybyholdersofabachelor'sdegreewithclassificationofHonoursDegree. magisterinżynier(mgrinż.)title–theequivalentofaMasterofEngineering,grantedafterabout2yearsofadditionalstudybyholdersofadegreeofBachelorofEngineering. doktor(dr)degree–theequivalentofDoctorofPhilosophy. doktorhabilitowany(drhab.)degree–PolishHabilitationdegree,requiresapprovalbyanexternalministerialbody. profesor(prof.)degree–thehighesttitle,officiallyconferredbythePresidentofPoland. Russia,UkraineandsomeotherformerUSSRrepublics[edit] Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(April2010)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Since1992,Russianhighereducationhasintroducedamultilevelsystem,enablinghighereducationinstitutionstoawardandissueBachelorofScienceandMasterofSciencedegrees.[88] InRussia,UkraineandsomeotherformerUSSRrepublicseducationaldegreesareawardedafterfinishingcollegeeducation.Thereareseverallevelsofeducationonemustchoosebetween2ndand3rdyearusuallyonthe3rdyearofstudy.[89] Bachelordegree–usuallytakes4yearsofcollege.(minimumleveltoberecognizedashavingHigherEducation) Specialistdegreeisawardedafter5yearsofcollege.(4+1) Master's(Magister)degreeisawardedafter6yearsofcollege.(4+2)[90] (ButSpecialistdegreecanappearequivalenttoMagisterdegreebyreasonofequivalenceofamountofeducationaltime). UsuallySpecialistorMagisterdegreesincorporatesbachelor'sdegreeinthem,butonlyhigh-leveldegreeisstatedinfinaldiploma. SpecialistandMagisterdegreesrequiretakingfinalstateexamsandwrittenworkonpracticalapplicationofstudiedskills orresearchthesis(usually70–100pages)andisroughlyequivalenttomaster'sdegree.[91] Thefirstlevelacademicdegreeiscalled"Kandidatnauk"(thatcouldbetranslatedverbatimasa"CandidateofSciences").Thisdegreerequiresextensiveresearchefforts,takingsomeclasses,publicationsinpeer-reviewedacademicjournals(notlessthan5publicationsinUkraineor3publicationsinRussia),taking3ormoreexams(oneormoreintheirspeciality,oneinaforeignlanguageandoneinthehistoryandphilosophyofscience)andwritinganddefendinganin-depththesis(80–200pages)calleda"dissertation". Finally,thereisa"DoktorNauk"(thatcouldbetranslatedverbatimasa"DoctorofSciences")degreeinRussiaandsomeformerUSSRacademicenvironment.Thisdegreeisgrantedforcontributionsinacertainfield(formally–whoestablishednewdirectionornewfieldinscience).Itrequiresdiscoveryofnewphenomenonordevelopmentofnewtheoryoressentialdevelopmentofnewdirection,etc.Thereisnoequivalentofthis"doctorofsciences"degreeinUSacademicsystem.ItisroughlyequivalenttoHabilitationinGermany,France,AustriaandsomeotherEuropeancountries. Incountrieswithatwo-tiersystemofdoctoraldegrees,thedegreeofKandidatNaukshouldbeconsideredforrecognitionatthelevelofthefirstdoctoraldegree.Incountrieswithonlyonedoctoraldegree,thedegreeofKandidatNaukshouldbeconsideredforrecognitionasequivalenttothisdegree. AccordingtoGuidelinesfortherecognitionofRussianqualificationsintheothercountries[92]Incountrieswithatwo-tiersystemofdoctoraldegrees,thedegreeofDoktorNaukshouldbeconsideredforrecognitionattheleveloftheseconddoctoraldegree.Incountriesinwhichonlyonedoctoraldegreeexists,thedegreeofDoktorNaukshouldbeconsideredforrecognitionatthelevelofthisdegree. AccordingtoInternationalStandardClassificationofEducation(ISCED)UNESCO2011,[93]par.262forpurposesofinternationaleducationalstatistics DPhiltoKandidatNauk/Philosophy, D.Lit.toKandidatNaukinLiterature, D.Sc.toKandidatNaukofNaturalScience, LL.D.toKandidatNaukofLegalScience. Spain[edit] Spain'shigher-educationlegalframeworkincludes:officialandaccreditededucationandnon-officialeducation. 1.1Officialandaccreditededucation InSpain,accreditationofofficialuniversitystudyprogrammesisregulatedbylawandmonitoredbygovernmentalagenciesresponsibleforverifyingtheirqualityandsuitabilityforofficialapprovalandaccreditation. Officialprofessionalstudyprogrammesleadtodegreequalifications(Títulos)withfullacademicandprofessionaleffectsandthedegreesawardedinaccordancewiththelatesthigher-educationsystemare: 1.Bachelor'sDegree(Grado)–240ECTSCreditsin4years. 2.Master'sDegree(MasterUniversitario)–60to120ECTSCreditsin1–2years. 3.DoctoraldegreePhD(Doctorado)–in3–4years. Accreditedbachelor'sdegreesandmaster'sdegreesqualificationswillalwaysbedescribedas"Grado"and"MasterUniversitario".ThesequalificationscomplywiththeEuropeanHigherEducationArea(EHEA)[94]framework.OfficiallyapprovedandaccrediteduniversitystudyprogrammesmustimplementthisframeworkbylawinordertoattainandretainaccreditationinSpain. SpanishOfficialUniversityEducationLegalFramework02 1.2Non-officialeducation NotallEHEAcompliantstudyprogrammesinSpainareofficiallyapprovedand/oraccreditedbygovernmentagencies.Someuniversitiesofferproprietarystudyprogrammesasanalternativetoaccreditedstudyprogrammesforavarietyofreasons:attendingthecontinuingeducationmarketforindividualself-advancementandalsoprovidinghighereducationtoindividualsthathavefailedtoacquirebachelor'sdegreequalifications.Themainreasonforofferingthisalternativestudies,though,istheheavybureaucraticprocessthatneedstobeaccomplishedtoreceivetheapprovalofspecifictitles,inparticularwhenitreferstonewstudiesorstudiesaboutmattersthatdonotfitwiththeofficialstudies.Forhistoricalreasons,theacademicsystemhasbeenverymuchunderthecontroloftheStateandprivateuniversitiesarestillregardedwithasathreattotheStatesystem. Theseprogrammesfallwithinthecategoryof"Nonofficiallyapprovedandaccredited"or"Estudiosnooficiales"andtheyhavenoacademicorprofessionaleffects.Thismeansthattheydonotentitlethebearertoclaimtohaveanyspecificacademicorprofessionalqualifications,asfarastheSpanishauthoritiesareconcerned.However,theremaybeprivateagreementstorecognizethetitles. SpanishOfficialUniversityEducationLegalFramework01 Universitiesofferingnon-officialstudyprogrammesarelegallyboundtoclearlydifferentiatebetweenofficiallyapprovedandnon-officiallyapprovedqualificationswhennamingtheirofferofnon-officialqualifications.Non-accreditedmaster'sdegreeswillbedescribedas"Master"onitsown,withouttheterm"Universitario". Certainnon-officiallyapprovedandaccreditedstudyprogrammesmayacquireawell-deservedreputation.However,neitherprofessionalassociation,governmentagencies,judiciaryauthorities,noruniversities–otherthanthestudyprogrammeprovider–areobligedtorecognizenon-officialqualificationsinanyway. 2.Accreditationsystem UniversitytaughtstudyprogrammesaccreditationisgrantedthroughtheANECA,[95]agovernmentdependentqualityassuranceandaccreditationproviderfortheSpanishHigherEducationSystemandensuresthatthedataheldintheRUCT,[96]anationalregistryforuniversitiesandqualifications,iscorrectanduptodate.AllstudyprogrammesmustbeaccreditedbyANECA[95]priortotheirinclusionintheRUCT.[96] TheRUCT[96]recordsallofficiallyapproveduniversitiesandtheirbachelor'sdegrees,master'sDegreesandPhDsandeachandeveryoneoftheofficiallyapprovedandaccreditedstudyprogrammesanduniversitiesareassignedaspecificnumberCode(Código)bytheRUCT.Thesamestudyprogrammemayacquiredifferentcodesasitprogressesthroughvariousstagesofofficialapprovalbylocalgovernmentandcentralgovernment. ProspectivestudentsshouldchecktheRUCT[96]CodeawardedtothestudyprogrammeoftheirinterestateverystageoftheirenquiriesconcerningdegreesinSpain. ANECAmakesrecommendationsregardingprocedures,staffinglevels,qualityofteaching,resourcesavailabletostudentsandcontinuityorlossofaccreditationandtheANECARegistry[97]recordsalleventsinthelifeofanofficiallyapprovedandaccreditedstudyprogrammeorauniversity.TheANECARegistrySearchFacility[98]maybethesimplestandsafestwaytoverifythestatusofallofficiallyapprovedandaccreditedstudyprogrammesinSpain. ItisalsopossibletotrackqualificationsbyusingthesearchfacilitythatseveralAutonomousCommunitiesownaccreditationagenciesoffer.TheseagenciesworkwithintheANECAframeworkandgenerallyshowmoredetailedinformationaboutthestudyprogrammesavailableineachterritory(i.e.:Catalonia,Madrid,etc.) 3.Qualificationsframeworkforhighereducation ThequalificationsframeworkforhighereducationMECESisthereferenceframeworkadoptedinSpaininordertostructuredegreelevels. Notalluniversitiesofferdegreesnamedexactlythesame,eveniftheyhavesimilaracademicandprofessionaleffects.Eachuniversitymaypresentproposalsforthestudyprogrammeconsideredtomeetprofessionalandacademicdemand.Theproposalwillconsistofareportlinkingthestudyprogrammebeingconsideredandtheproposedqualificationtobeawarded.ThisreportwillbeassessedbyANECAandsentfortheConsejodeUniversidadesEspañolas.[99]IftheConsejoagreeswithANECA'sapproval,itwillbeincludedintheRUCTandANECAregistries. 4.Spanishqualificationsandtheirprofessionaleffects. Allbachelor'sandmaster'sdegreesaccreditedbyANECAenjoyfullacademicandprofessionaleffectsinaccordancewithnewandpreviouslaws.ProfessionalpracticelawinSpainiscurrentlyunderrevision. Sweden[edit] Seealso:Bolognaprocess§ Sweden Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(May2008) Switzerland[edit] BeforetheBolognaProcessafter4or5yearsofstudytheacademicdegreeofaLicentiatewasreached.[100]DependingontheofficiallanguageoftheuniversityitwascalledLizentiat(German)Licence(French)orlicenza(Italian)andistodayconsideredequivalent[101]tothemaster'sdegreeaccordingtotheBolognareform.ALicentiatewithapredefinedqualificationgaveaccesstothelaststageoffurthertwoormoreyearsofstudies(dependingonthefield)foraDoctoral'sdegree. Apartfromthismostuniversitiesofferedapostgraduatediplomawithuptotwoyearsofstudy.French-speakinguniversitiescalledthemdiplômed'étudesapprofondiesDEAorDESS,theItalian-speakinguniversitypostlaureaandGerman-speakinguniversitiesmostlyNachdiplomstudium(NDS).Todaythefederallegislationdefinesthesepostgraduatediplomas(60ECTScredits)asMasterofAdvancedStudies(MAS)orExecutiveMasterofBusinessAdministration(EMBA)degree.Universitiesmayalsoofferthepossibilitytogainadiplomaofadvancedstudies(DAS),lessthan60ECTScredits).[102]Thesedegreesdonotnormallygiveaccesstothedoctoratestudy. UnitedKingdom[edit] England,WalesandNorthernIreland[edit] Thenewlyconferredbachelor'sdegreeholdersaftergraduationatKing'sCollegeLondon,oneofthefoundingcollegesoftheUniversityofLondon Thetitle"degree"isprotectedunderUKlaw.AllvalidUKdegreesareawardedbyuniversitiesorotherdegree-awardingbodieswhosepowerstodosoarerecognisedbytheUKgovernment;hencetheyareknownas"recognisedbodies".[103] ThestandardfirstdegreeinEngland,NorthernIrelandandWalesisthebachelor'sdegreeconferredwithhonours.UsuallythisisaBachelorofArts(BA)orBachelorofScience(BSc)degree.Othervariantsexist,forexampleBachelorofEducationorBachelorofLaws.Itusuallytakesthreeyearstoreadforabachelor'sdegree. Thehonoursareusuallycategorisedintofourclasses: Firstclasshonours(1st) Secondclasshonours,dividedinto: Upperdivisionoruppersecond(2:1) Lowerdivisionorlowersecond(2:2) Thirdclasshonours(3rd).[104] Candidateswhohavenotachievedthestandardfortheawardofhonoursmaybeadmittedwithouthonourstothe"ordinary"Bachelor'sdegreeiftheyhavemettherequiredstandardforthislesserqualification(alsoreferredtoasa"passdegree").Standardlevelsforeachoftheseclassesare70%+forafirst,60-69%fora2:1,50-59%fora2:2,40-49%fora3rdand30%+forapassdegree,althoughthiscanvarybyinstitution(e.g.theOpenUniversity).[105] Thefoundationdegree[106]isaqualificationatlowerthanBachelor'slevelawardedfollowingatwo-yearprogrammeofstudythatisusuallyvocationalinnature.ThefoundationdegreecanbeawardedbyauniversityorcollegeofhighereducationthathasbeengrantedfoundationdegreeawardingpowersbytheUKgovernment.ThisdegreeiscomparabletoanassociatedegreeintheUnitedStates. TheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeawardhonoraryMasterofArts(MA)degreestograduatesoftheirBachelor'sprogrammes,followingaspecifiedperiodoftime.ThisiscomparabletothepracticeoftheancientuniversitiesinScotlandofawardinganMAforafirstdegreeandarguablyreflectstherigorousstandardsexpectedoftheirgraduates. Master'sdegrees[107]suchasMasterofArtsorMasterofSciencearetypicallyawardedtostudentswhohaveundertakenatleastayearoffull-timepostgraduatestudy,whichmaybetaughtorinvolveanelementofresearch.DegreessuchasMasterofPhilosophy(MPhil)orMasterofLetters/Literature(MLitt)arelikelytobeawardedforpostgraduatedegreesinvolvingoriginalresearch.AstudentundertakingaMaster'swouldnormallybeexpectedtoalreadyholdabachelor'sdegreeinarelevantsubject,hencethepossibilityofreachingMaster'slevelinoneyear. SomeuniversitiesawardaMaster'sasafirstdegreefollowinganintegratedprogrammeofstudy(an'integratedmaster'sdegree').Thesedegreesareusuallydesignatedbythesubject,suchasMasterofEngineeringforengineering,MasterofPhysicsforphysics,MasterofMathematicsformathematicsandsoon;itusuallytakesfouryearstoreadforthem.Graduationtothesedegreesisalwayswithhonours.MasterofEngineeringinparticularhasnowbecomethestandardfirstdegreeinengineeringatthetopUKuniversities,replacingtheolderBachelorofEngineering. Master'sdegreesareoftengradedas: Distinction Merit Pass TheMasterofBusinessAdministration(MBA)degreeishighlyvaluedbythoseseekingtoadvanceinbusinessasmanagersanddecisionmakers. Doctoraldegreesordoctorates,[108]suchastheDoctorofPhilosophydegree(PhDorDPhil)orDoctorofEducation(EdDorDEd)areawardedfollowingaprogrammeoforiginalresearchthatcontributesnewknowledgewithinthecontextofthestudent'sdiscipline.Doctoraldegreesusuallytakethreeyearsfull-time.Therefore,intheUKitmayonlytakesevenyearstoprogressfromundergraduatetodoctorallevel–insomecasessix,sincehavingaMaster'sisnotalwaysapreconditionforembarkingonadoctoraldegree.ThiscontrastswithnineyearsintheUnitedStates,reflectingdifferencesintheeducationalsystems. Somedoctorates,suchastheDoctorofClinicalPsychology(DClinPsy)qualification,confirmcompetencetopracticeinparticularprofessions.Therearealsohigherdoctorates–DoctorofScience(DSc)andDoctorofLetters/Literature(DLitt)thataretypicallyawardedtoexperiencedacademicswhohavedemonstratedahighlevelofachievementintheiracademiccareer;forexampletheymayhavepublishedwidelyontheirsubjectorbecomeprofessorsintheirfield. UKpost-secondaryqualificationsaredefinedatdifferentlevels,withlevels1–3denotingfurthereducationandlevels4–8denotinghighereducation.Withinthisstructure,afoundationdegreeisatlevel5;abachelor'sdegreeatlevel6;amaster'sdegreeatlevel7;andadoctoraldegreeatlevel8.[109] FullinformationabouttheexpectationsfordifferenttypesofUKdegreeispublishedbytheQualityAssuranceAgencyforHigherEducation.[110] Seealsograduatecertificate,graduatediploma,postgraduatecertificate,postgraduatediplomaandBritishdegreeabbreviations. Scotland[edit] ThestandardfirstdegreeforstudentsstudyingartsorhumanitiesinScotlandiseitheraBachelorofArtsoraMasterofArts(thelattertraditionallyawardedbytheAncientUniversitiesofScotlandforafirstdegreeinanarts/humanitiessubject).ThestandardundergraduatedegreefornaturalandsocialsciencesubjectsistheBachelorofScience.[111] Studentscanworktowardsafirstdegreeateitherordinaryorhonourslevel.Ageneralorordinarydegree(BA/MAorBSc)takesthreeyearstocomplete;anhonoursdegree(BA/MAHonsorBScHons)takesfouryears.Theordinarydegreeneednotbeinaspecificsubject,butcaninvolvestudyacrossarangeofsubjectswithin(andsometimesbeyond)therelevantfaculty,inwhichcaseitmayalsobecalledageneraldegree;ifathirdyearorjuniorhonourssubjectisincluded,theordinarydegreeinthatnameddisciplineisawarded.Thehonoursdegreeinvolvestwoyearsofstudyatasub-honourslevelinwhicharangeofsubjectswithintherelevantfacultyarestudiedandthentwoyearsofstudyathonourslevelwhichisspecialisedinasinglefield(forexampleclassics,history,chemistry,biology,etc.).NotalluniversitiesinScotlandadheretothis,insomeyoustudyinseveralsubjectswithinafacultyforthreeyearsandcanthenspecialiseintwoareasandattainajointhonoursdegreeinfourthyear. ThisalsoreflectsthebroaderscopeofthefinalyearsofScottishsecondaryeducation,wheretraditionallyfiveHighersarestudied,comparedto(typically)threeEnglishorWelshA-Levels.TheHigherisaone-yearqualification,asopposedtothetwoyearsofA-Levels,whichaccountsforScottishhonoursdegreesbeingayearlongerthanthoseinEngland.AdvancedHighersaddanoptionalfinalyearofsecondaryeducation,bringingstudentsuptotheleveloftheirA-Levelcounterparts–studentswithstrongA-LevelsorAdvancedHighersmaybeofferedentrydirectlyintothesecondyearatScottishuniversities. HonoursforMAorbachelor'sdegreesareclassifiedintothreeclasses: Firstclasshonours Secondclasshonours,dividedinto: Divisionone(2:1)[UpperSecondClassHonours] Divisiontwo(2:2)[LowerSecondClassHonours] Thirdclasshonours Studentswhocompletealltherequirementsforanhonoursdegree,butdonotreceivesufficientmerittobeawardedthird-classhonoursmaybeawardedaSpecialDegree(ordinarydegree–bachelor'slevelSCQFLevel9). Inmostrespects,thecriteriaforawardingqualificationsathonourslevelandabovearethesameasintherestoftheUK(seeaboveunderEngland,WalesandNorthernIreland).PostgraduatequalificationsarenotdesignatedMasterofArtsasintherestoftheUK,asthisisanundergraduatedegree.PostgraduatedegreesinartsandhumanitiessubjectsareusuallydesignatedMasterofLetters(M.Litt.)or,innaturalandsocialsciences,MasterofScience(M.Sc.).Non-doctoralpostgraduateresearchdegreesareusuallydesignatedMasterofPhilosophy(M.Phil.)orMasterofResearch(M.Res.).Thepostgraduateteachingqualificationisthepostgraduatediplomaineducation(PGDE). Postgraduatequalificationsareclassifiedintofourclasses: Distinction Credit Merit Pass NorthAmerica[edit] Canada[edit] InCanada,educationistheresponsibilityoftheprovincesandterritories,ratherthanthefederalgovernment.However,allofCanadafollowsthethree-levelbachelor's-master's-doctoratesystemcommontotheAnglophoneworld,withafewvariations.Acommonframeworkfordegreeswasagreedbetweentheprovincesandterritoriesin2007.[112] Bachelor'sdegreesarenormallythreetofouryearsinduration,morecommonlythreeyearsinQuebec(wheretheyfollowonfromcollegecoursesratherthandirectlyfromsecondaryeducation).OutsideQuebec,three-yearbachelor'sdegreesarenormallyordinarydegrees,whilefour-yearbachelor'sdegreesarehonoursdegrees;anhonoursdegreeisnormallyneededforfurtherstudyatthemaster'slevel.[113]Master'sdegreestakeonetothreeyears(inQuebectheynormallytakeoneandahalftotwoyears).Doctoratestakeaminimumofthreeyears.AloneamongCanadianprovincesandterritories,BritishColumbiaofferstwo-yearassociatedegrees,allowingcredittobetransferredintoafour-yearbachelor'sprogram.[114] InCanada,firstprofessionaldegreessuchasDDS,MD,PharmDandLLBorJDareconsideredbachelor'slevelqualifications,despitetheiroftenbeingnamedasiftheyweredoctorates.[112][115][116][117][118][119] Quebec[edit] IntheprovinceofQuebec,themajorityofstudentsmustattendcollegepriortoenteringuniversity.Uponcompletionofatwo-yearpre-universityprogram,suchasinSciencesorHumanities,orathree-yeartechnicalprogram,suchasNursingorComputerScience,collegegraduatesobtainacollegediploma,whichisaprerequisiteforaccesstouniversity-levelstudies.Althoughthesecollegeprogramsaretypical,theyarenotofferedineveryinstitutionintheprovince.Moreover,whileafewotherpre-universityprogramswithvariousconcentrationsexist,manyothertechnical/careerprogramsareavailabledependingonthecollegeofchoice.Forexample,DawsonCollegeinMontrealhasnearlysixtydifferentprogramsleadingtoacollegediploma.Specialprograms,suchasphysicalrehabilitationtherapy,areofferedinsomecollegesaswell.Theseprogramsareparticularlyinterestingbecausetheyallowstudentstoenterprofessionaluniversityprograms,suchasphysiotherapy(whichconsistsofanintegratedBachelorofScienceinPhysiotherapyandMasterofPhysicalTherapy),withouthavingtomeettheusualgradeandcourseprerequisitesrequiredfromstudentsholdingapre-universitysciencediploma.AsimilaroptionisofferedforcollegenursinggraduatesastheycanpursuetheirstudiesinuniversitytoobtainaBachelorofNursingintwoyears(ratherthantheusualthreeorfouryears,dependingonwhetherthestudenthascompletedacollegediplomainQuebec).Additionally,whereasaspiringmedicalstudentsareusuallyrequiredtocompleteanundergraduatedegreebeforeapplyingtomedicalschools,Quebeccollegegraduateshavetheoptiontoenter: a"medicalpreparatory"yearatMcGillUniversityorUniversitédeMontréalandthenpursuemedicalstudiesforthefourfollowingyears; directlyintotheundergraduatemedicaleducationprogramatUniversitéLaval(4to5yearsinduration)orUniversitédeSherbrooke(4yearsinduration). Mexico[edit] EducationinMexicofollowsathree-degreesystemsimilartothatofCanadaandtheUS.Thepre-universityacademiclevelisthebachillerato(alsocalledpreparatoria),similartohighschool.Studentstypicallyleavepreparatoriaattheageof18foruniversity,atwhichpointtheychoosetospecializeinaspecificacademicarea(acarrera). Afterhighschool,studentsprogresstouniversity,wheretheystudyforaTécnicoSuperioruniversitario(Associatedegree)[120]oralicenciatura(Bachelor),thenamaestría(Master),thenadoctorado(doctorate). Onceinuniversity,studentsbeginthecarrera,thestudyofapreciseacademicbranchlikeeconomics,businessadministration,sciences,law,engineeringormedicine.Studentswillbeinuniversityfor8–10semestersoffull-timestudy,whichtypicallytakes4–5years.Upongraduation,studentsreceivealicenciaturaintheirchosensubjectarea,whichisequivalenttoanAmericanBachelor'sdegree.Theycanalsogetthedegreeof"ingenieria"or"medico"thatreferstoanengineerorMDrespectively. SeveralMexicanuniversitiesofferstudentsthepossibilityofobtaininganequivalenttoanassociatedegree,calledinMexicoTécnicoSuperioruniversitario(TSU),studyingonlyhalfofthelicenciatura,withthepossibilityoffinishingafullbachelor'sdegreelater.[121]Thisisdonemainlyinfieldslikeengineeringandcomputersciences. Afterreceivingthelicenciatura,studentsmaytakeextracoursescalleddiplomados(similartoaCertificationbutissuedbyauniversity).Thesecourseslast4–12monthsandareameanstofurtherstudywithoutcontinuingtothenextdegreelevel,usuallystudiedtodemonstratethatthestudentstillupdatedinhisfield.Moststudentsstayatthislevel,butsomechoosetocontinuetothemaestría,equivalenttothemaster'sdegree.Studyatthemaestríaleveltakes1–3yearsandmandatescompletionofathesis.Post-graduatestudentsinMexicotypicallyenteramaster'sprogramafterafewyearsintheworkforceandoftencontinueworkingwhilestudying. Traditionally,studentswhohavecompletedthemaestriamaycontinueontothedoctoradoorthedoctorate.Doctoralstudytypicallylasts3–4years.InlastyearsthisschemeshasbecomeflexiblesuchthatinsomePhDprogrammes,studentsareacceptedbeforeornotcompletingatallaMastercourse. UnitedStates[edit] IntheUnitedStates,sincethelate19thcentury,thethreefolddegreesystemofbachelor,masteranddoctorhasbeeninplace,buthasevolvedintoaslightlydifferentpatternfromtheEuropeanequivalent.TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationnowclassifiesdegreesinsixcategories:associatedegrees,bachelor'sdegrees,firstprofessionaldegrees,master'sdegrees,intermediategraduatequalificationsandresearchdoctorates.[122] Thestandardacademicprogressionremainsbachelor's—master's—(research)doctorate.Moststandardacademicprogramsarebasedonthefour-yearbachelor'sdegree,mostoftenBachelorofArts(B.A.)orBachelorofScience(B.S.),aone-ortwo-yearmaster'sdegree(mostoftenMasterofArts(M.A.)orMasterofScience(M.S.);eitheroftheseprogramsmightbeaslongasthreeyearsinlength)andafurthertwotofiveyearsofcourseworkandresearch,culminatingin"comprehensive"examinationsinoneormorefields,plusperhapssometeachingexperienceandthenthewritingofadissertationforthedoctorate,foratotaloftenormoreyearsfromstartingthebachelor'sdegree(whichisusuallybegunaroundage18)totheawardingofthedoctorate.Thistimetableisonlyapproximate,however,asstudentsinacceleratedprogramscansometimesearnabachelor'sdegreeinthreeyearsor,ontheotherhand,aparticulardissertationprojectmighttakefourormoreyearstocomplete.Inaddition,agraduatemaywaitanindeterminatetimebetweendegreesbeforecandidacyinthenextlevelorevenanadditionaldegreeatalevelalreadycompleted.Therefore,thereisnotime-limitontheaccumulationofacademicdegrees. ByfarthemostcommonresearchdoctorateistheDoctorofPhilosophy(Ph.D.),comprising98.1%ofresearchdoctoratesin2014.TheDoctorofEducation(Ed.D.)madeup1.1%(notincludingEd.D.sclassifiedasprofessionaldegreesratherthanresearchdoctorates)andallotherresearchdoctorateswerelessthan1%intotal.[123][124][125] Someschools,mostlyjuniorcollegesandcommunitycollegesandsomefour-yearschools,offeranassociatedegreefortwofullyearsofstudy.ThesemaybeinprofessionaloracademicfieldsandthemostcommonawardsaretheAssociateofArts(A.A.)andAssociateofScience(A.S.)degrees.Articulationagreementsmayallowcreditearnedonanassociatedegreetobecountedtowardcompletionofabachelor'sdegree.[126] The"firstprofessionaldegree"isagraduateleveldegreeprogramdesignedtopreparegraduatesforprofessionalpracticeinvariousfieldsotherthanacademicscholarshipandresearch.Firstprofessionaldegreesrequireaminimumoftwoyearspriorcollege-leveleducationtoentertheprogramandaminimumofsixyearstotalcollege-leveleducation(includingthatundertakenpriortoentry)tocompletetheprogram.[127]Mostprofessionaldegreeprogramsrequireapriorbachelor'sdegreeforadmissionandmanyrequiresevenoreightyearsoftotalstudy.Manyfirstprofessionaldegrees,e.g.M.D.,J.D.orD.O.arenamedasdoctoratesbutshouldnotbeconfusedwithresearchdoctoratessuchasthePh.D.(or,inlaw,theS.J.D.).[127][128]Firstprofessionaldegreesshouldalsonotbeconfusedwithprofessionalmaster'sdegreessuchastheM.Arch.andM.B.A.,whichareclassifiedasmaster'sdegrees,[129]orwithintermediategraduatequalificationsthatalsobearthetitleofdoctor,suchasD.Min.orD.Psy.[130] Intermediategraduatequalificationsliebetweenmaster'slevelandthedoctorate.TheyincludeawardssuchasAdvancedCertificates,AdvancedGraduateCertificates,GraduateDiplomas,ProfessionalEngineerstatusandProfessionalDiplomas,aswellasspecialistdegreessuchasEducationSpecialist,DoctorofMinistry,DoctorofPsychologyandtheLicentiateinSacredTheology.[130] In21USjurisdictions,religiousinstitutionscanbeauthorizedtograntreligious-exempt(rel.exmpt.,rel.expt.,etc.)degreeswithoutaccreditationorgovernmentoversight.[131]Suchdegreesareusedprimarilytoattainchurch-relatedemployment.[132] Currentlevelsofattainmentofdegrees[edit] Traditionallymorementhanwomenattendedandearneddegreesattheworld'suniversities.AmilestonewasreachedintheUnitedStatesaccordingtoresultsofthe2010census,aswomensurpassedmeninattainingmaster'sdegrees,forthefirsttime.[133]TheU.S.censusreportsthat10.5millionmenhavemaster'sdegreesorhigher,comparedwith10.6millionwomen.Thefirstyearthatwomensurpassedmeninearningbachelor'sdegreeswasin1996.[134] PerceptionsofthevalueofadegreeintheUS[edit] Students,themediaandthegeneralpublichaveshownmuchconcernoverthevalueofgettingahigherdegreeintheUSeversincetheGreatRecessionof2007.A2015surveyof2,000adults(900ofwhichweregraduates),implementedbyaneducationtechnologycompanycalledGreenwoodHall,reportedthatmorethanhalfofthegraduatessurveyedbelievethosegettingtheirdegreenowwillbereceivingalowerreturnontheirinvestmentthantheircounterparts10–15yearsago.[135]Mediacoverageoftherisingcostsofhighereducationandincreasedstudentdebthavealsoaffectedthepublic'sperceptionsofwhetherhigherdegreesarestillworthwhile.Statisticscitingthatcollegegraduatesmakearound$1millionmoreintheirlifetimesthanthosewhodidn'tattendcollegeandlivinglonger,healthierlivesworkinfavorofthosewhoarguethecontinuedvalueofhigherdegrees.[135]Studieslikethe2011LearningGainsstudybyArumandRoksa,ontheotherhand,reportedthatonly55%ofstudentshadanylearninggainsduringtheirfirsttwoyearsofcollege,whichfavorstheargumentthatinvestinginhighereducationmaynotstillbeworthit.[136]Asacademicscontinueresearchinganddissectingthesearguments,educationremainsahottopicintheUSasshownbyPresidentObamarecentlysettinganationalgoalfortheUStoonceagainhavethehighestproportionofcollegegraduatesintheworldby2020.[137] Oceania[edit] Australia[edit] Mainarticle:AustralianQualificationsFramework TheAustralianQualificationsFramework(AQF)covers10levels,ofwhich6–10correspondtoacademicdegrees.Theseare:theassociatedegree(level6),whichnormallytakes2years;thebachelordegree(level7),whichnormallytakes3years,thebachelorhonoursdegree(level8),whichnormallytakes1yearafterthebachelor'sdegreeandismostlytakenasanoptionalextensionyeardependingonthediscipline,themasterdegree(level9),whichnormallytakes1–2yearsfor"research"or"coursework"degreesand3–4yearsforan"extended"degreeandfollowsonfromeitherabachelororhonoursdegree;andthedoctoraldegree(level10),whichnormallytakes3–4yearsfollowingonfromamaster'sdegreeoraClassIorIIahonoursqualification.Alsoincludedwithinthehighereducationsystemare:diplomasatlevel5(firstyearofadegreecourse);advanceddiplomas,atlevel6(associatedegreelevel);andgraduatecertificatesandgraduatediplomas,bothofwhichareatlevel8(honoursdegreelevel).[138][139]InAustralia,mostdegreesareissuedungraded,withbachelor'sdegreeswithhonoursbeingtheexception. Categoriesofhonoursdegreesare: FirstClassHonours(H1orI;overallmarkof80%andabove); SecondClassHonours-ADivision(H2AorIIA;overallmarkof74%to79%); SecondClassHonours-BDivision(H2BorIIB;overallmarkof70%to74%); ThirdClassHonours(H3 orIII; overallmarkof65%to69%). Lowermarksdonotqualifyforhonours,butyieldabachelordegreeat: Pass(P:overallmarkof50%to64%); Fail(NorFailed;overallmarkof49%andbelow).[140] DoctoratesinAustraliamayberesearchdoctorates(normallytitledPhDs)orprofessionaldoctorates(normallytitledtorefertothefieldofpractice,e.g.DoctorofEngineering.Professionaldoctoratesstillrequireresearchleadingto"asignificantandoriginalcontributiontoknowledgeinthecontextofprofessionalpractice"andshouldnotbeconfusedwithextendedmaster'sdegreesthatbearsimilarnamesforhistoricalreasons:theJurisDoctorandDoctorsofMedicalPractice,Physiotherapy,DentistryandOptometry.Despitetheirnames,theseextendedmaster'sdegreesmaynotbedescribedasdoctoraldegreesnordotheyconfertherighttousethetitleofdoctorontheirrecipients.[139] NewZealand[edit] Mainarticle:TertiaryeducationinNewZealand LikeAustralia,NewZealandhasa10-levelqualificationsframework(theNewZealandQualificationsFramework;NZQF)andareferencingexercisehasfoundaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenthelevelsofthetwoframeworks.[141]However,thenamesgiventoqualificationsatdifferentlevelsarenotthesameandNewZealanddoesnothaveassociatedegrees,thusonlylevels7–10correspondtoacademicdegrees.Thesearethebachelor'sdegree(level7),bachelorhonoursdegree(level8),master'sdegree(level9)andthedoctoraldegree(level10).Inadditiontothese,theNZQFhascertificatesacrosslevels1–6,diplomasatlevels5and6,graduatecertificatesandgraduatediplomasatlevel7(bachelor's)andpostgraduatecertificatesandpostgraduatediplomasatlevel8(honours).[142]Anotherreferencingexercise,comparingtheNZQFtothe10-levelIrishNationalFrameworkforQualificationsfoundthatdegreeswerecomparablebutthatfurtherworkwasneededtoimprovecompatibilityforthesub-degreelevels(1–6).Non-degreequalificationsatlevels7–9werenotincludedinthestudy.[143]InNewZealand,master'sdegreesmaybeawardedwithclassifiedhonours(1st,2:1,2:2,3rd)orwithdistinctionormerit.[144] SouthAmerica[edit] Argentina[edit] Mainarticle:EducationinArgentina Brazil[edit] UndergraduatestudentsinBrazilianuniversitiesgraduateeitherwithabachelor'sdegree,aLicentiatedegreeoraTechnologistdegree. BachelordegreesinBrazilnormallytakesfourorfiveyearsoffull-timestudytocomplete,withtheexceptionofthehumanmedicinecoursewhichrequiressixyears. Licentiatedegree,normallytakesfour-yearslengthdegrees,availableforstudentswhowanttoqualifyasschoolteachers.Licenciaturacoursesexistmostlyinmathematics,humanitiesandnaturalsciences. Technologistdegreeisavailableintechnology-relatedfieldsandcanbenormallyobtainedinthreeyears.Thesedegreesareturnedtofastentrytheindustry. AdmissionasanundergraduatestudentinmosttoppublicorprivateuniversitiesinBrazilrequiresthattheapplicantpassacompetitiveentranceexaminationknownasVestibular.ContrarytowhathappensintheUnitedStates,candidatesmustdeclaretheirintendeduniversitymajorwhentheyregisterfortheVestibular.Althoughitistheoreticallypossibletoswitchmajorsafterwards(inaprocessknownwithintheuniversitiesastransferênciainterna),thatisactuallyquiterareinBrazil.UndergraduatecurriculatendtobemorerigidthanintheUnitedStatesandthereislittleroomtotakeclassesoutsideone'smajor. Individualswhoholdeitherabachelor'sdegree,LicentiateorTechnologistareeligibleforadmissionintograduatecoursesleadingtoadvancedmaster'sordoctor'sdegrees.Criteriaforadmissionintomaster'sanddoctor'sprogramsvaryinBrazil.Someuniversitiesrequirethatcandidatestakeentranceexams;othersmakeadmissiondecisionsbasedsolelyonundergraduatetranscripts,lettersofrecommendationandpossiblyoralinterviews.Inmostcases,however,especiallyforthedoctorate,thecandidateisrequiredtosubmitaresearchplanandonefacultymembermustagreetoserveashis/hersupervisorbeforethecandidatecanbeadmittedintotheprogram;TheexceptionaretheNaturalSciencespost-graduateprograms,thatacceptsstudentswithverybroadand/orvagueresearchprospectswithsometimestheprospectisgiveninpromptuduringtheinterview,preferringtoletthestudentsdefinetheirstudyprogramandadvisorinthecourseofthefirstyearofstudies. Therearetwotypesofpost-graduateprograms,latosensu(specializationandMBAs)andstrictosensu(professionalmaster's,master'sanddoctorate): SpecializationsorMBAsarecoursesthatincludetakingaminimumnumber(minimum360hours)ofgraduateclassesbutwithnoneedtodoresearchnordefendathesis,onlypresentafinalworkshowingtheknowledge.It'saprofessionallevelwheretheoryandpracticearefocusedinabroadsense. ProfessionalMaster'sormaster'sdegreesusuallytakesonetotwoyearsoffull-timestudy.Requirementsforanacademicmaster'sdegreeincludetakingaminimumnumberofadvancedgraduateclasses(typicallybetweenfiveandeight)andsubmittingaresearchthesiswhichisexaminedorallybyapanelofatleasttwoexaminers(threeisthepreferrednumber),sometimesincludingoneexternalmemberwhomustbefromanotheruniversityorresearchinstitute.Theemphasisofthethesismustbeinaddingsomevaluetotheacademicknowledge,butnotnecessarilyinbeingoriginal. Doctor'sdegreesnormallytakefouradditionalyearsoffull-timestudytocomplete.Requirementsforobtainingadoctor'sdegreeincludetakingadditionaladvancedcourses,passinganoralqualifyingexamandsubmittingalongerdoctoraldissertationwhichmustrepresentasignificantoriginalcontributiontoknowledgeinthefieldtowhichthedissertationtopicisrelated.Thatcontrastswithmaster'sthesis,which,inadditiontobeingusuallyshorterthandoctoraldissertations,arenotrequiredtoincludecreationofnewknowledgeorrevision/reinterpretationofolderviews/theories.Thedoctoraldissertationisexaminedinafinaloralexambeforeapanelofatleasttwomembers(inthestateofSãoPaulothepreferrednumberisfive,whiletheotherregionspreferthreemembers),usuallyincludingoneortwoexternalexaminersfromanotheruniversityorresearchinstitute. Finally,asmallnumberofBrazilianuniversities,mostnotablythepublicuniversitiesinthestateofSãoPaulostillawardthetitleofLivre-Docente(freedocent),whichisofhigherstandingthanadoctorateandisobtained,similartotheGermanHabilitation,bythesubmissionofasecond(originalorcumulative)thesisandapprovalinaLivre-Docênciaexaminationthatincludesgivingapubliclecturebeforeapaneloffullprofessors. SeealsoUniversitiesandHigherEducationinBrazil Colombia[edit] InColombia,thesystemofacademicdegreesisbasedintheBritishmodelbeensimilartotheU.S.model.Aftercompletingtheir"bachillerato"(highschool),studentscantakeoneofthreeoptions.Thefirstoneiscalleda"Profesional"(professionalcareer),whichissimilartoabachelor'sdegreerequiringfromfourto6yearsofstudyaccordingtothechosenprogram.Theotheroptioniscalleda"Técnico"(technician);thisdegreeconsistsintwoandahalfyearsofstudyandpreparesthestudentfortechnicalormechanicallabors.Finally,thethirdoptioniscalleda¨Tecnólogo¨(equivalenttoassociatedegree)andconsistof3yearsofstudy. Afterthis,students,nowcalled"profesional"(professionals),Tecnólogos(associates)or"técnicos"(technicians),canoptforhigherdegrees. Formaleducationafterthebachelor'sdegreeisthemaster'sdegreewiththetitleof"Maestro"anddoctoratedegreeknownas"Doctorado"(doctorate).Themaster'sdegreenormallyconsistsoftwoyears. Studentsalsocantakeaspecializationcourse,"Especialización",equivalenttoagraduatecertificatedegree,aftertheirbachelor'sdegree.Theseprograms,likeintheU.S.areverypopular,becauseitrequiresonlyonetotwoyearsofstudy. AsimilarsituationinColombia,whencomparedtotheU.S.system,isthatthestudentsmaynotgodirectlytothe"Doctorado"withouthavingthe"Master"degreefirst. Chile[edit] Aftercompleting"enseñanzamedia"(highschool),studentsreceivea"LicenciaturadeEnseñanzaMedia"(highschooldiploma),whichisarequirementforhighereducation. InChile,there'sadistinctionbetweenacademicdegreesandprofessionaltitles: GradoacadémicoisthedenominationgiventoanacademicdegreegrantedbyahighereducationinstitutionrecognizedbytheChileanMineduc(MinistryofEducation). Tituloprofesionalisthedenominationgiventoaprofessionaltitle.Someprofessionaltitlesarerequiredforoccupationssuchasphysicians,attorneysandascivil/commercialengineers.Aprofessionaltitlemayornotrequirea"Gradoacadémico",additionalexaminationand/orworkexperience.Forexample,the"Abogado"professionaltitleisgrantedbytheChileanSupremeCourtandrequiresanexamination,academicdegreeand6monthsofpro-bonoworkexperience. Amonggradoacadémicodegrees,wecanfindthefollowinglevels: Bachiller,undergraduatedegreeobtainedbycompletinga2-year"bachillerato". Licenciado,undergraduatedegreeobtainedasa4+year"licenciatura".Equivalenttoabachelor'sdegree. Magister,graduatedegree,requiringa"Licenciado"degreeorequivalent.Equivalenttoamaster'sdegree. Doctorado,adoctoraldegree,oftenrequiringa"Magister"degreeorequivalent. Highereducationprogramsthatprovideaprofessionaltitlebutnotanacademicdegreearereferredtoas"carrerastécnicas",whicharesimilarindurationandscopetoassociatedegreeprograms.Theseareoftengrantedbyeducationalinstitutionsofthetype"Institutoprofesional"(IP)or"Centrodeformacióntécnica"(CFT). Venezuela[edit] TitlesinVenezuelastartwiththeCertificadodeEducaciónBásica(CertificateofBasicEducation),awardeduponcompleting9thgrade.Thenexttitleisearneduponcompleting11thgradeandmaybeBachillerenCiencias(HighSchoolGraduateofScience),BachillerenHumanidades(HighSchoolGraduateofHumanities)orTécnicoenCiencias(ScienceTechnician).Thereasonforthisdiversityisbecausesomeschoolsprovidevocationaleducationaspartoftheirhighschoolcurriculum(therebyallowingthemtohandout"Technician"titles)whileelsewhere,thestudentisrequiredtodecidewhethertostudySciencesorHumanitiesforthelasttwoyearsofsecondaryschool. Titlesatthehighereducationlevelusuallydependontheinstitutionhandingthemout.TechnicalschoolsawardthestudentwiththetitleofTécnicoSuperiorUniversitario(universityhighertechnician,todistinguishfromsciencetechnician).UniversitiesawardthestudentwiththetitleofIngeniero(engineer)orwiththetitleLicenciado(licentiate)aftercompletingafive-yearprogram.Theengineerhavemorephysicssubjectsthanthelicentiate,butbotharefive-yearcareers.SomehighereducationinstitutionsmayawardDiplomados(diploma),butthetimenecessarytoobtainonevaries.Medicaldoctorsareawardedthetitle"MédicoCirujano"aftercompletinga6year-career. PostgraduateeducationfollowsconventionsoftheUnitedStates(beingnamed"master's"and"doctorate"aftertheprogramsthere) Pontificaluniversities[edit] PontificaluniversitiesaroundtheworldsuchasthePontificalUniversity,StPatrick'sCollege,MaynoothinIreland,thePontificalandRoyalUniversityofSantoTomasinManila,[145]TheCatholicUniversityofAmerica,thePontificalUniversityofSaintThomasAquinas,AngelicuminRome,theUniversityofLouvain(UCLouvain)inBelgiumandthePontificalCatholicUniversityofPerudependfortheirstatusaspontificaluniversitiesandforthenatureoftheiracademicdegreesonthePopethroughtheCongregationforCatholicEducation.ThenatureofacademicdegreesfromecclesiasticalinstitutionsofeducationisoutlinedintheapostolicconstitutionSapientiaChristiana.[146] IndistinctiontosecularorCatholicuniversities,whichareacademicinstitutionsforthestudyandteachingofabroadrangeofdisciplines,EcclesiasticalorPontificaluniversities"areusuallycomposedofthreeprincipalecclesiasticalfaculties,theology,philosophyandcanonlawandatleastoneotherfaculty.APontificaluniversityspecificallyaddressesChristianrevelationanddisciplinescorrelativetotheevangelicalmissionoftheChurchassetoutintheapostolicconstitutionSapientiachristiana."[146][147] Therearethreecyclesofdegreesthatconstitutethecoreofdegreesgrantedbypontificaluniversities:thefirstcycleleadingtothebaccalaureatedegree;thesecondcycleleadingtothelicentiatedegree;thethirdcycleleadingtothedoctorate.Fromthiscorepontificaluniversitiesconferdegreesincluding:Theology BaccalaureateinSacredTheology,SacraeTheologiaeBaccalaureatus(S.T.B.) LicentiateinSacredTheology,SacraeTheologiaeLicentiatus(S.T.L.) DoctorateinSacredTheology,SacraeTheologiaeDoctoratus(S.T.D.) Philosophy BaccalaureateinPhilosophy,PhilosophiaeBaccalaureatus(Ph.B.) LicentiateinPhilosophy,PhilosophiaeLicentiatus(Ph.L.) DoctorateinPhilosophy,PhilosophiaeDoctoratus(Ph.D.) CanonLaw BaccalaureateinCanonLaw,JurisCanoniciBaccalaureatus(J.C.B.) LicentiateinCanonLaw,IurisCanoniciLicentiatus(J.C.L.) DoctorateinCanonLaw,IurisCanoniciDoctoratus(J.C.D.) Seealso[edit] Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Academicdegree AcademicAwardsinSpain AcademicInflation Academicstole Adeundemdegree DegreesoftheUniversityofOxford Educationaldevaluation Externaldegree Highereducation Honorarydegree Lambethdegree LisbonRecognitionConvention Listoffieldsofdoctoralstudies Pontificaluniversity Postgraduateeducation Thesis Validationofforeignstudiesanddegrees References[edit] ^abVerger,J.(1998)."Doctor,doctoratus".LexikondesMittelalters[LexiconoftheMiddleAges](inGerman).3.Stuttgart:J.B.Metzler. ^abcVerger,J.(1999)."Licentia".LexikondesMittelalters[LexiconoftheMiddleAges](inGerman).5.Stuttgart:J.B.Metzler. ^"AcademicDegree".K12academics.com.6February2014.Retrieved2017-08-18. ^"OriginoftheBachelor's,Master'sandDoctorate".Academicapparel.com.Retrieved2017-08-18. ^Makdisi,George(April–June1989),"ScholasticismandHumanisminClassicalIslamandtheChristianWest",JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety,109(2):175–182[175–77],doi:10.2307/604423,JSTOR 604423 ^abAl-Attas,SyedFarid(1January2006)."FromJāmi'ahtoUniversity:MulticulturalismandChristian–MuslimDialogue".CurrentSociology.54(1):112–132.doi:10.1177/0011392106058837.ISSN 0011-3921.S2CID 144509355.Inthe1930s,therenownedOrientalistAlfredGuillaumenotedstrongresemblancesbetweenMuslimandWesternChristianinstitutionsofhigherlearning.Anexamplehecitedistheijazah,whichherecognizedasbeingakintothemedievallicentiadocendi,theprecursorofthemodernuniversitydegree. ^DevinJ.Stewart(2005)."Degrees,orIjazah".InJosefW.Meri(ed.).MedievalIslamicCivilization:AnEncyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 201–203.ISBN 9781135455965.Thelicensetoteachlawandissuelegalopinions[...]isthetypeofijazahthatresemblesthemedievalEuropeanuniversitydegreemostclosely[...]Themaindifferencebetweenthetwoisthatthegrantingauthorityisanindividualprofessor,intheIslamiccase,ratherthanacorporateinstitutioninthecaseoftheuniversity.Despitethispoint,Makdisihaslikenedtheijazatal-ifta’wa’l-tadristothemedievalLatinlicentiadocendiandsuggeststhatitservedasamodelforthatdegree. ^Huff,TobyE.(2007).Theriseofearlymodernscience :Islam,China,andtheWest(2.ed.,repr. ed.).Cambridge[u.a.]:CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 155.ISBN 978-0521529945.Itremainsthecasethatnoequivalentofthebachelor'sdegree,thelicentiadocendi,orhigherdegreeseveremergedinthemedievalorearlymodernIslamicmadrasas. ^Verger,J.(1999),"Doctor,doctoratus",LexikondesMittelalters,3,Stuttgart:J.B.Metzler,cols1155–1156 ^Rüegg,Walter:"Foreword.TheUniversityasaEuropeanInstitution",in:AHistoryoftheUniversityinEurope.Vol.1:UniversitiesintheMiddleAges,CambridgeUniversityPress,1992,ISBN 0-521-36105-2,pp.XIX:"NootherEuropeaninstitutionhasspreadovertheentireworldinthewayinwhichthetraditionalformoftheEuropeanuniversityhasdone.ThedegreesawardedbyEuropeanuniversities–thebachelor'sdegree,thelicentiate,themaster'sdegree,andthedoctorate–havebeenadoptedinthemostdiversesocietiesthroughouttheworld." ^NormanDaniel:Reviewof"TheRiseofColleges.InstitutionsofLearninginIslamandtheWestbyGeorgeMakdisi",JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety,Vol.104,No.3(Jul.–Sep.,1984),pp.586–588(587) 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^"AVEPRO".avepro.va.RetrievedNovember1,2012. vteLevelsofacademicdegreeUndergraduateISCEDlevel5 Associatedegree Foundationdegree HigherNationalDiploma/​DiplomaofHigherEducation/​CertificateofHigherEducation ISCEDlevel6 Bachelor'sdegree Honoursdegree PostgraduateISCEDlevel7 Master'sdegree Postgraduatediploma/​certificate Diplomdegree Engineer'sdegree ISCEDlevel8 Doctorate CandidateofSciences OtherPostdoctoral Higherdoctorate Doktornauk Habilitation Docent Tenure Fellow Nodominantclassification Academiccertificate Laurea Licentiate Magisterdegree Professionaldegree Graduatediploma/​certificate Higherdiploma Specialistdegree/​diploma Terminaldegree Unearned Honorarydegree Adeundemdegree Namedacademicdegrees Associate's degrees (U.S.) AA,AAS,ABA,ABS,AOS,AS,AMusAandLMusA(Australia),ASN,AssociateinSpecializedTechnology(AST) Foundation degrees (UK) FdA,FdEd,FdEng,FdMus,FdBus,FdSc,FdTech Bachelor's degrees ABorBA,BAccorBAcy,BAdm,BAgrEc,BArch,BBA,BBus,BComorBComm,BCS,BCL,STB,BD,BDent,BDS,B.Ed.,BEc,BEngorBE,BSBME,BFA,BHSc,BGS,BHE,BHK,BID,BJ,BTh,BLibStud,BLIS,BMath,BMedScorBMedSci,BMus,BSN,BPE,BPharm,BSorBScorSB,BSc(Agr)orBSA,BSocSci,BSW,BTech,LLA,LLB,MBChBorMBBSorBMBSorBMedorMBBChirorMBBChBAO,MA(Cantab.),MA(Dubl.),MA(Hons),MA(Oxon.) Master's degrees MArch,MA,MAT,MALSorMLS,MSorMSc,MSt,DEA,MAccorMPAcc,MALD,MApol,MPhil,MRes,MFA,MTech,MBA,MBI,MBT,MBus,MCGI,MCom,MDes,MTh,MTS,MDiv,MEd,MMT,MPA,MPD,MPS,MSN,MProfStuds,MJ,MST,MSW,MPAff,MLIS,MLitt,MPH,MPM,MPP,MPT,MRE,MTheol/ThM/MTh,STM,LLM,MEng,MSci,MBio,MChem,MPhys,MMath,MMedScorMMedSci,MMus,MESci,MGeol,MTCM,MSSc,BCL(Oxon),BPhil(Oxon),ThM Licentiatedegrees: LicArts,LDS,JCL,STL,SSL,LSS,PhL Specialist degrees EdS,SSP Engineer's degrees AE,BE,BME,CE,CE,ChE,EE,CpE,ECS,EnvE,MSE,ME,NavE,NuclE,OceanE,SysE,Eng First-professional degrees AuD,DC,DCM,DDS,DMD,JD,MD(US),DPT,ND,OD,DO(USonly),PharmD,DP,PodD,DPM,MDiv,MHL,DVM,PD,STB Doctoral degrees DHSc,PhD,DPS,EdD,DEng,EngD,PDEng,DEnv,DBA,DD,JCD,SSD,JUD,DSc,DLitt,DA,MD(outofUSandCanada),DMA,DMus,DCL,ThD,DrPH,DPT,DPhil,PsyD,DSW,JD,LLD,LHD,JSD,SJD,JuDr,STD,DMin vtePersonalnamesandanthroponymy Personalidentity Personalname Givenname Surname Patrilineal/Matrilineal Affixes Nobiliaryparticle Bysequence Firstname Middlename Lastname Bytrait Diminutive Double-barrelled Eponymic Matronymic Metonymic Mononymic Occupationalname Patronymic Surname Sobriquet Teknonymic Toponymic Patrialname Unisex Bylifesituation Aptronym Codename Maidenandmarriednames Necronym Posthumousname Templename Placeholdername Notname Regnalname Slavename Pseudonyms(list) Artname Bugō Nicknames list Hypocorism Nomdeguerre Penname Heteronym Ringname Shikona Stagename List Mononyms Username BycultureSurnamesbycountryEastAsian Chinese Courtesy Hongkongese Japanese Okinawan Amami Korean Manchu Mongolian Taiwaneseaboriginal Tibetan Vietnamese MuslimworldandWesternAsia Afghan Albanian Arabic Armenian Azerbaijani Bangladeshi Indonesian Balinese Chinese Javanese Kurdish Malaysian Pakistani Sindhi Pashtun Persian Somali Tatar Turkish Oceania AustralianAboriginal Fijian Hawaiian Māori Sub-SaharanAfrica Ashanti DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo EthiopianandEritrean Ewe Ghanaian Igbo Yoruba Zimbabwean Europe,NorthAmericaandAustralasia Albanian Armenian AshkenaziJewish 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Academic Educational Honorary Business Diplomatic Judicial Religious Ecclesiastical Relatedtraditions Baptism Nameday Calendarofsaints Related Acronym Anonymity Anthropomorphism Nationalpersonification Callsign Family Galton–Watsonprocess Legalname Namechange Nomennescio -onym Personalidentity Identifier Propername Signature Monogram Royalcypher Khelrtva Signummanus Tughra Namingtaboo Category:Listsofnames Portal:EducationAcademicdegreeatWikipedia'ssisterprojects:MediafromCommonsQuotationsfromWikiquoteDatafromWikidata AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Nationallibraries UnitedStates Japan Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Academic_degree&oldid=1062848356" 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