Social ecological model - Wikipedia

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Framework for Human Development is considered to be the most recognized and utilized social ecological model (as applied to ... Socialecologicalmodel FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Socio-ecologicalmodelsweredevelopedtofurthertheunderstandingofthedynamicinterrelationsamongvariouspersonalandenvironmentalfactors.SocioecologicalmodelswereintroducedtourbanstudiesbysociologistsassociatedwiththeChicagoSchoolaftertheFirstWorldWarasareactiontothenarrowscopeofmostresearchconductedbydevelopmentalpsychologists.Thesemodelsbridgethegapbetweenbehavioraltheoriesthatfocusonsmallsettingsandanthropologicaltheories. Introducedasaconceptualmodelinthe1970s,formalizedasatheoryinthe1980s,andcontinuallyrevisedbyBronfenbrenneruntilhisdeathin2005,UrieBronfenbrenner'sEcologicalFrameworkforHumanDevelopmentappliessocioecologicalmodelstohumandevelopment.Inhisinitialtheory,Bronfenbrennerpostulatedthatinordertounderstandhumandevelopment,theentireecologicalsysteminwhichgrowthoccursneedstobetakenintoaccount.Insubsequentrevisions,Bronfenbrenneracknowledgedtherelevanceofbiologicalandgeneticaspectsofthepersoninhumandevelopment. AtthecoreofBronfenbrenner’secologicalmodelisthechild’sbiologicalandpsychologicalmakeup,basedonindividualandgeneticdevelopmentalhistory.Thismakeupcontinuestobeaffectedandmodifiedbythechild’simmediatephysicalandsocialenvironment(microsystem)aswellasinteractionsamongthesystemswithintheenvironment(mesosystems).Otherbroadersocial,politicalandeconomicconditions(exosystem)influencethestructureandavailabilityofmicrosystemsandthemannerinwhichtheyaffectthechild.Finally,social,political,andeconomicconditionsarethemselvesinfluencedbythegeneralbeliefsandattitudes(macrosystems)sharedbymembersofthesociety.(Bukatko&Daehler,1998) Initssimplestterms,systemstheoryistheideathatonethingaffectsanother.Thebasicideabehindsystemstheoryisthatonethingaffectsanothereventandexistencedoesnotoccurinavacuumbutinrelationtochangingcircumstancessystemsaredynamicandparadoxicallyretaintheirownintegritywhileadaptingtotheinevitablechangesgoingonaroundthem.Ourindividualandcollectivebehaviourisinfluencedbyeverythingfromourgenestothepoliticalenvironment.Itisnotpossibletofullyunderstandourdevelopmentandbehaviourwithouttakingintoaccountalloftheseelements.Andindeed,thisiswhatsomesocialworktheoriesinsistthatwedoifwearetomakeeffectiveinterventions.Lyingbehindthesemodelsistheideathateverythingisconnected,everythingcanaffecteverythingelse.Complexsystemsaremadeupofmanyparts.Itisnotpossibletounderstandthewholewithoutrecognizinghowthecomponentpartsinteract,affectandchangeeachother.Asthepartsinteract,theycreatethecharacterandfunctionofthewhole.[1] Contents 1Fromsystemsthinkingtosocioecologicalmodels 2Bronfenbrenner'secologicalframeworkforhumandevelopment 2.1Ecologicalsystemstheory 2.1.1Microsystem 2.1.2Mesosystem 2.1.3Exosystem 2.1.4Macrosystem 2.1.5Chronosystem 3Processpersoncontexttimemodel 4Applications 5Criticism 6Keycontributors 7Seealso 8References 9Furtherreading Fromsystemsthinkingtosocioecologicalmodels[edit] Asystemcanbedefinedasacomparativelyboundedstructureconsistingofinteracting,interrelated,orinterdependentelementsthatformawhole.[2]Systemsthinkingarguesthattheonlywaytofullyunderstandsomethingoranoccurrenceistounderstandthepartsinrelationtothewhole.Thus,systemsthinking,whichistheprocessofunderstandinghowthingsinfluenceoneanotherwithinawhole,iscentraltoecologicalmodels.Generally,asystemisacommunitysituatedwithinanenvironment.Examplesofsystemsarehealthsystems,educationsystems,foodsystems,andeconomicsystems. Drawingfromnaturalecosystemswhicharedefinedasthenetworkofinteractionsamongorganismsandbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment,socialecologyisaframeworkorsetoftheoreticalprinciplesforunderstandingthedynamicinterrelationsamongvariouspersonalandenvironmentalfactors.[3]Socialecologypaysexplicitattentiontothesocial,institutional,andculturalcontextsofpeople-environmentrelations.Thisperspectiveemphasizesthemultipledimensions(example:physicalenvironment,socialandculturalenvironment,personalattributes),multiplelevels(example:individuals,groups,organizations),andcomplexityofhumansituations(example:cumulativeimpactofeventsovertime).[4]Socialecologyalsoincorporatesconceptssuchasinterdependenceandhomeostasisfromsystemstheorytocharacterizereciprocalanddynamicperson-environmenttransactions.[5],[6] Individualsarekeyagentsinecologicalsystems.Fromanecologicalperspective,theindividualisbothapostulate(abasicentitywhoseexistenceistakenforgranted)andaunitofmeasurement.Asapostulate,anindividualhasseveralcharacteristics.Firstanindividualrequiresaccesstoanenvironment,uponwhichtheyaredependentforknowledge.Second,theyareinterdependentwithotherhumans;thatis,isalwayspartofapopulationandcannotexistotherwise.Third,anindividualistimebound,orhasafinitelifecycle.Fourth,theyhaveaninnatetendencytopreserveandexpandlife.Fifth,theyhavecapacityforbehavioralvariability.[7] Socialecologicalmodelsarethusapplicabletotheprocessesandconditionsthatgovernthelifelongcourseofhumandevelopmentintheactualenvironmentinwhichhumanbeingslive.[8]UrieBronfenbrenner'sEcologicalFrameworkforHumanDevelopmentisconsideredtobethemostrecognizedandutilizedsocialecologicalmodel(asappliedtohumandevelopment).Ecologicalsystemstheoryconsidersachild'sdevelopmentwithinthecontextofthesystemsofrelationshipthatformhisorherenvironment. Bronfenbrenner'secologicalframeworkforhumandevelopment[edit] IllustrationofBronfenbrenner'secologicalframeworkforhumandevelopment.Individual'senvironmentisinfluencedbyeachnestedlayerbutinterconnectedstructures.[9]: 49  Mainarticle:Ecologicalsystemstheory Bronfenbrenner'secologicalframeworkforhumandevelopmentwasfirstintroducedinthe1970sasaconceptualmodelandbecameatheoreticalmodelinthe1980s.Twodistinctphasesofthetheorycanbeidentified.Bronfenbrenner[10]statedthat"itisusefultodistinguishtwoperiods:thefirstendingwiththepublicationoftheEcologyofHumanDevelopment(1979),andthesecondcharacterizedbyaseriesofpapersthatcalledtheoriginalmodelintoquestion."Bronfenbrenner'sinitialtheoryillustratedtheimportanceofplacetoaspectsofthecontext,andintherevision,heengagedinself-criticismfordiscountingtheroleapersonplaysinhisorherowndevelopmentwhilefocusingtoomuchonthecontext.[11]Althoughrevised,altered,andextended,theheartofBronfenbrenner'stheoryremainstheecological-stressingperson-contextinterrelatedness. TheBronfenbrennerecologicalmodelexamineshumandevelopmentbystudyinghowhumanbeingscreatethespecificenvironmentsinwhichtheylive.Inotherwords,humanbeingsdevelopaccordingtotheirenvironment;thiscanincludesocietyasawholeandtheperiodinwhichtheylive,whichwillimpactbehavioranddevelopment.Thisviewsbehavioranddevelopmentasasymbioticrelationship,whichiswhythisisalsoknownasthe“bioecological”model. Ecologicalsystemstheory[edit] BronfenbrennermadehisEcologicalsystemstheorytoexplainhoweverythinginachildandthechild'senvironmentaffectshowachildgrowsanddevelops.Inhisoriginaltheory,Bronfenbrennerpostulatedthatinordertounderstandhumandevelopment,theentireecologicalsysteminwhichgrowthoccursneedstobetakenintoaccount.Thissystemiscomposedoffivesociallyorganizedsubsystemsthatsupportandguidehumandevelopment.Eachsystemdependsonthecontextualnatureoftheperson'slifeandoffersanevergrowingdiversityofoptionsandsourcesofgrowth.Furthermore,withinandbetweeneachsystemarebi-directionalinfluences.Thesebi-directionalinfluencesimplythatrelationshipshaveimpactintwodirections,bothawayfromtheindividualandtowardstheindividual. Becausewepotentiallyhaveaccesstothesesubsystemsweareabletohavemoresocialknowledge,anincreasedsetofpossibilitiesforlearningproblemsolving,andaccesstonewdimensionsofself-exploration. Microsystem[edit] Themicrosystemisthelayerclosesttothechildandcontainsthestructureswithwhichthechildhasdirectcontact.Themicrosystemencompassestherelationshipsandinteractionsachildhaswithhisorherimmediatesurroundingssuchasfamily,school,neighborhood,orchildcareenvironments.[12]Atthemicrosystemlevel,bi-directionalinfluencesarestrongestandhavethegreatestimpactonthechild.However,interactionsatouterlevelscanstillimpacttheinnerstructures.Thiscoreenvironmentstandsasthechild'svenueforinitiallylearningabouttheworld.Asthechild'smostintimatelearningsetting,itoffershimorherareferencepointfortheworld.Themicrosystemmayprovidethenurturingcenterpieceforthechildorbecomeahauntingsetofmemories.[13]Therealpowerinthisinitialsetofinterrelationswithfamilyforthechildiswhattheyexperienceintermsofdevelopingtrustandmutualitywiththeirsignificantpeople.[14]Thefamilyisthechild'searlymicrosystemforlearninghowtolive.Thecaringrelationsbetweenchildandparents(orothercaregivers)canhelptoinfluenceahealthypersonality.[15]Forexample,theattachmentbehaviorsofparentsofferchildrentheirfirsttrust-buildingexperience.[16] Mesosystem[edit] Themesosystemmovesusbeyondthedyadortwo-partyrelation.[17]Mesosystemsconnecttwoormoresystemsinwhichchild,parentandfamilylive.[18]Mesosystemsprovidetheconnectionbetweenthestructuresofthechild'smicrosystem.[12]Forexample,theconnectionbetweenthechild'steacherandhisparents,betweenhischurchandhisneighborhood,eachrepresentmesosystems.*** Exosystem[edit] Theexosystemdefinesthelargersocialsysteminwhichthechilddoesnotdirectlyfunction.Thestructuresinthislayerimpactthechild'sdevelopmentbyinteractingwithsomestructureinhis/hermicrosystem.[12]Parentworkplaceschedulesorcommunity-basedfamilyresourcesareexamples.Thechildmaynotbedirectlyinvolvedatthislevel,buttheydofeelthepositiveornegativeforceinvolvedwiththeinteractionwiththeirownsystem.Themainexosystemsthatindirectlyinfluenceyouththroughtheirfamilyinclude:schoolandpeers,parents'workplace,familysocialnetworksandneighborhoodcommunitycontexts,localpoliticsandindustry.[8]Exosystemscanbeempowering(example:ahighqualitychild-careprogramthatbenefitstheentirefamily)ortheycanbedegrading(example:excessivestressatworkimpactstheentirefamily).Furthermore,absencefromasystemmakesitnolesspowerfulinalife.Forexample,manychildrenrealisethestressoftheirparent'sworkplaceswithouteverphysicallybeingintheseplaces.[19] Macrosystem[edit] Themacrosystemisthelargerculturalcontext,suchasattitudesandsocialconditionswithintheculturewherethechildislocated.Macrosystemscanbeusedtodescribetheculturalorsocialcontextofvarioussocietalgroupssuchassocialclasses,ethnicgroups,orreligiousaffiliates.[20]Thislayeristheoutermostlayerinthechild'senvironment.Theeffectsoflargerprinciplesdefinedbythemacrosystemhaveacascadinginfluencethroughouttheinteractionsofallotherlayers.[21]Themacrosysteminfluenceswhat,how,whenandwherewecarryoutourrelations.[22]Forexample,aprogramlikeWomen,Infants,andChildren(WIC)maypositivelyimpactayoungmotherthroughhealthcare,vitamins,andothereducationalresources.Itmayempowerherlifesothatshe,inturn,ismoreeffectiveandcaringwithhernewborn.[23]Inthisexample,withoutanumbrellaofbeliefs,services,andsupportforfamilies,childrenandtheirparentsareopentogreatharmanddeterioration.[24]Inasense,themacrosytemthatsurroundsushelpsustoholdtogetherthemanythreadsofourlives. Chronosystem[edit] Thechronosystemencompassesthedimensionoftimeasitrelatestoachild'senvironment.[11]Elementswithinthissystemcanbeeitherexternal,suchasthetimingofaparent'sdeath,orinternal,suchasthephysiologicalchangesthatoccurwiththeagingofachild.Familydynamicsneedtobeframedinthehistoricalcontextastheyoccurwithineachsystem.[11]Specifically,thepowerfulinfluencethathistoricalinfluencesinthemacrosystemhaveonhowfamiliescanrespondtodifferentstressors.Bronfenbrenner[18]suggeststhat,inmanycases,familiesrespondtodifferentstressorswithinthesocietalparametersexistentintheirlives. Processpersoncontexttimemodel[edit] Bronfenbrenner'smostsignificantdeparturefromhisoriginaltheoryistheinclusionofprocessesofhumandevelopment.Processes,perBronfenbrenner,explaintheconnectionbetweensomeaspectofthecontextorsomeaspectoftheindividualandanoutcomeofinterest.Thefull,revisedtheorydealswiththeinteractionamongprocesses,person,contextandtime,andislabeledtheProcess–Person–Context–Timemodel(PPCT).Twointerdependentpropositionsdefinethepropertiesofthemodel.Furthermore,contrarytotheoriginalmodel,theProcess–Person–Context–Timemodelismoresuitableforscientificinvestigation.PerBronfenbrenner:[25] "Proposition1:Initsearlyphaseandthroughoutthelifecourse,humandevelopmenttakesplacethroughprocessesofprogressivelymorecomplexreciprocalinteractionsbetweenanactive,evolvingbiopsychologicalhumanorganismandthepersons,objectsandsymbolsinitsimmediateenvironment.Tobeeffective,theinteractionmustoccuronafairlyregularbasisoverextendedperiodsoftime.Theseformsofinteractionintheimmediateenvironmentarereferredtoasproximalprocesses. Proposition2:theform,powerandcontentanddirectionoftheproximalprocessesaffectingdevelopmentvarysystematicallyasajointfunctionofthecharacteristicsofthedevelopingperson,oftheenvironment-immediateandmoreremote-inwhichtheprocessesaretakingplaceandthenatureofthedevelopmentaloutcomeunderconsideration." Processesplayacrucialroleindevelopment.Proximalprocessesarefundamentaltothetheory.Theyconstitutetheenginesofdevelopmentbecauseitisbyengaginginactivitiesandinteractionsthatindividualscometomakesenseoftheirworld,understandtheirplaceinit,andbothplaytheirpartinchangingtheprevailingorderwhilefittingintotheexistingone.[26]Thenatureofproximalprocessesvariesaccordingtoaspectsoftheindividualandofthecontext—bothspatiallyandtemporally.[25]Asexplainedinthesecondofthetwocentralpropositions,thesocialcontinuitiesandchangesoccurovertimethroughthelifecourseandthehistoricalperiodduringwhichthepersonlives.[25]Effectsofproximalprocessesarethusmorepowerfulthanthoseoftheenvironmentalcontextsinwhichtheyoccur. Person.Bronfenbrenneracknowledgesheretherelevanceofbiologicalandgeneticaspectsoftheperson.[8]However,hedevotedmoreattentiontothepersonalcharacteristicsthatindividualsbringwiththemintoanysocialsituation.[25]Hedividedthesecharacteristicsintothreetypes'demand,resource,andforcecharacteristics.Demandcharacteristicsarethosethatactasanimmediatestimulustoanotherperson,suchasage,gender,skincolor,andphysicalappearance.Thesetypesofcharacteristicsmayinfluenceinitialinteractionsbecauseoftheexpectationsformedimmediately.Resourcecharacteristicsarethosethatrelatepartlytomentalandemotionalresourcessuchaspastexperiences,skills,andintelligence,andalsotosocialandmaterialresources(accesstogoodfood,housing,caringparents,andeducationalopportunitiesappropriatetotheneedsoftheparticularsociety).Finally,forcecharacteristicsarethosethathavetodowithdifferencesoftemperament,motivation,andpersistence.AccordingtoBronfenbrenner,twochildrenmayhaveequalresourcecharacteristics,buttheirdevelopmentaltrajectorieswillbequitedifferentifoneismotivatedtosucceedandpersistsintasksandtheotherisnotmotivatedanddoesnotpersist.Assuch,Bronfenbrennerprovidedaclearerviewofindividuals'rolesinchangingtheircontext.Thechangecanberelativelypassive(apersonchangestheenvironmentsimplybybeinginit),tomoreactive(thewaysinwhichthepersonchangestheenvironmentarelinkedtohisorherresourcecharacteristics,whetherphysical,mental,oremotional),tomostactive(theextenttowhichthepersonchangestheenvironmentislinked,inpart,tothedesireanddrivetodoso,orforcecharacteristics).[27] Thecontext,orenvironment,involvesfourofthefiveinterrelatedsystemsoftheoriginaltheory:themicrosystem,themesosystem,theexosystem,andthemacrosystem. ThefinalelementofthePPCTmodelistime.Timeplaysacrucialroleinhumandevelopment.Inthesamewaythatbothcontextandindividualfactorsaredividedintosub-factorsorsub-systems,BronfenbrennerandMorriswroteabouttimeasconstitutingmicro-time(whatisoccurringduringthecourseofsomespecificactivityorinteraction),meso-time(theextenttowhichactivitiesandinteractionsoccurwithsomeconsistencyinthedevelopingperson'senvironment),andmacro-time(thechronosystem).TimeandtimingareequallyimportantbecauseallaspectsofthePPCTmodelcanbethoughtofintermsofrelativeconstancyandchange.[27] Applications[edit] Theapplicationofsocialecologicaltheoriesandmodelsfocusonseveralgoals:toexplaintheperson-environmentinteraction,toimprovepeople-environmenttransactions,tonurturehumangrowthanddevelopmentinparticularenvironments,andtoimproveenvironmentssotheysupportexpressionofindividual'ssystem'sdispositions.Someexamplesare: Politicalandeconomicpoliciesthatsupporttheimportanceofparent'srolesintheirchildren'sdevelopmentsuchasHeadStartorWomenInfantsandChildrenprograms. Fosteringofsocietalattitudesthatvalueworkdoneonbehalfofchildrenatalllevels:parents,teachers,extendedfamily,mentors,worksupervisors,legislators. Incommunityhealthpromotion:identifyinghighimpactleveragepointsandintermediarieswithinorganizationsthatcanfacilitatethesuccessfulimplementationofhealthpromotinginterventions,combiningpersonfocusedandenvironmentallybasedcomponentswithincomprehensivehealthpromotionprograms,andmeasuringthescopeandsustainabilityofinterventionoutcomesoverprolongedperiods.Basisofinterventionprogramstoaddressissuessuchasbullying,obesity,overeatingandphysicalactivity. Interventionsthatusethesocialecologicalmodelasaframeworkincludemassmediacampaigns,socialmarketing,andskillsdevelopment. Ineconomics:economics,humanhabits,andculturalcharacteristicsareshapedbygeography.Ineconomics,anoutputisafunctionofnaturalresources,humanresources,capitalresources,andtechnology.Theenvironment(macrosystem)dictatesaconsiderableamounttothelifestyleoftheindividualandtheeconomyofthecountry.Forinstance,iftheregionismountainousoraridandthereislittlelandforagriculture,thecountrytypicallywillnotprosperasmuchasanothercountrythathasgreaterresources. Inriskcommunication:usedtoassisttheresearchertoanalyzethetimingofwheninformationisreceivedandidentifythereceiversandstakeholders.Thissituationisanenvironmentalinfluencethatmaybeveryfarreaching.Theindividual'seducationlevel,understanding,andaffluencemaydictatewhatinformationheorshereceivesandprocessesandthroughwhichmedium. Inpersonalhealth:topreventillnesses,apersonshouldavoidanenvironmentinwhichtheymaybemoresusceptibletocontractingavirusorwheretheirimmunesystemwouldbeweakened.Thisalsoincludespossiblyremovingoneselffromapotentiallydangerousenvironmentoravoidingasickcoworker.Ontheotherhand,someenvironmentsareparticularlyconducivetohealthbenefits.Surroundingoneselfwithphysicallyfitpeoplewillpotentiallyactasamotivatortobecomemoreactive,diet,orworkoutatthegym.Thegovernmentbanningtransfatmayhaveapositivetop-downeffectonthehealthofallindividualsinthatstateorcountry. Inhumannutrition:usedasamodelfornutritionresearchandinterventions.Thesocialecologicalmodellooksatmultiplelevelsofinfluenceonspecifichealthbehaviors.Levelsincludeintrapersonal(individual'sknowledge,demographics,attitudes,values,skills,behavior,self-concept,self-esteem),interpersonal(socialnetworks,socialsupports,families,workgroups,peers,friends,neighbors),organizational(norms,incentives,organizationalculture,managementstyles,organizationalstructure,communicationnetworks),community(communityresources,neighborhoodorganizations,folkpractices,non-profitorganizations,informalandformalleadershippractices),andpublicpolicylevel(legislation,policies,taxes,regulatoryagencies,laws)[28][29]Multi-levelinterventionsarethoughttobemosteffectiveinchangingbehavior.[29] Inpublichealth:drawinguponthismodeltoaddressthehealthofanation'spopulationisviewedascriticallyimportanttothestrategicalignmentofpolicyandservicesacrossthecontinuumofpopulationhealthneeds,includingthedesignofeffectivehealthpromotionanddiseasepreventionandcontrolstrategies.[30]Thusalso,inthedevelopmentofuniversalhealthcaresystems,itisappropriatetorecognize"HealthinAllPolicies"astheoverarchingpolicyframework,withpublichealth,primaryhealthcareandcommunityservicesasthecross-cuttingframeworkforallhealthandhealth-relatedservicesoperatingacrossthespectrumfromprimarypreventiontolongtermcareandend-stageconditions.Althoughthisperspectiveisbothlogicalandwellgrounded,therealityisdifferentinmostsettings,andthereisroomforimprovementeverywhere.[31] Inpolitics:theactofpoliticsismakingdecisions.Adecisionmayberequiredofanindividual,organization,community,orcountry.Adecisionacongressmanmakesaffectsanyoneinhisorherjurisdiction.IfonemakesthedecisionnottovoteforthePresidentoftheUnitedStates,onehasgivenoneselfnovoiceintheelection.Ifmanyotherindividualschoosenottovoicetheiropinionand/orvote,theyhaveinadvertentlyallowedamajorityofotherstomakethedecisionforthem.Ontheinternationallevel,iftheleadershipoftheU.S.decidestooccupyaforeigncountryitnotonlyaffectstheleadership;italsoaffectsU.S.servicemembers,theirfamilies,andthecommunitiestheycomefrom.Therearemultiplecross-levelandinteractiveeffectsofsuchadecision. Criticism[edit] Althoughgenerallywellreceived,UrieBronfenbrenner'smodelshaveencounteredsomecriticismthroughouttheyears.Mostcriticismcenteraroundthedifficultiestoempiricallytestthetheoryandmodelandthebroadnessofthetheorythatmakesitchallengingtointerveneatananygivenlevel[citationneeded].Someexamplesofcritiquesofthetheoryare: Challengingtoevaluateallcomponentsempirically. Difficultexplanatorymodeltoapplybecauseitrequiresextensivescopeofecologicaldetailwithwhichtobuildupmeaningthateverythinginsomeone'senvironmentneedstobetakenintoaccount. Failuretoacknowledgethatchildrenpositivelycrossboundariestodevelopcomplexidentities. Inabilitytorecognizethatchildren'sownconstructionsoffamilyaremorecomplexthantraditionaltheoriesaccountfor Thesystemsaroundchildrenarenotalwayslinear. Preoccupationwithachieving"normal"childhoodwithoutacommonunderstandingof"normal". Failstoseethatthevariablesofsociallifeareinconstantinterplayandthatsmallvariablescanchangeasystem. Missesthetensionbetweencontrolandself-realizationinchild-adultrelationships;childrencanshapeculture. Underplaysabilities,overlooksrights/feelings/complexity. Givestoolittleattentiontobiologicalandcognitivefactorsinchildren'sdevelopment. DoesnotaddressdevelopmentalstagesthatarethefocusoftheorieslikePiaget'sandErikson's. Keycontributors[edit] UrieBronfenbrenner ErnestBurgess GarrettHardin AmosH.Hawley AlastairMcIntosh JohnG.Oetzel RobertE.Park DanielStokols Seealso[edit] Environmentalsociology Ecology Sociology Psychology SocialPsychology Bioecologicalmodel Ecosystem Ecosystemecology Systemsecology Systemspsychology Theoreticalecology Systemsthinking References[edit] ^Howe,David.(2009).ABriefIntroductiontoSocialWorkTheory.RedGlobePress.ISBN 978-0230233126. ^Susser,M;SusserE(1996)."Choosingafutureforepidemiology:II.FromblackboxtoChineseboxesandeco-epidemiology".AmJPublicHealth.86(5):674–7.doi:10.2105/ajph.86.5.674.PMC 1380618.PMID 8629718. ^Schulze,Ernst-Detlef.(2005).PlantEcology.Berlin:Springer. ^McLaren,Lindsay;HawePenelope(2005)."EcologicalPerspectivesinHealthResearch".JEpidemiolCommunityHealth.59(1):6–14.doi:10.1136/jech.2003.018044.PMC 1763359.PMID 15598720. ^Stokols,D(1996)."Translatingsocialecologicaltheoryintoguidelinesforcommunityhealthpromotion".AmJHealthPromot.10(4):282–98.doi:10.4278/0890-1171-10.4.282.PMID 10159709.S2CID 4094142. ^Stokols,D.(1992)."Establishingandmaintaininghealthyenvironments:towardasocialecologyofhealthpromotion".AmPsychol.47:6–22.doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.1.6.PMID 1539925. ^Hawley,AH(1986).Humanecology:atheoreticalessay.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress. ^abcBronfenbrenner,Urie(1994).InternationalEncyclopediaofEducationVol3,2ndEd.Oxford:Elsevier. ^Mash,EricJ.(2019).Abnormalchildpsychology.Wolfe,DavidA.(DavidAllen),1951-(Seventh ed.).Boston,MA.ISBN 9781337624268.OCLC 1022139949. ^Bronfenbrenner,Urie(1999).FriedmanSLandWachsTD(ed.).Measuringenvironmentacrossthelifespan:Emergingmethodsandconcepts.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociationPress. ^abcBronfenbrenner,Urie(1989)."Ecologicalsystemstheory".InVasta,Ross(ed.).AnnalsofChildDevelopment:Vol.6.London,UK:JessicaKingsleyPublishers.pp. 187–249. ^abcBerk,L.E.(2000).ChildDevelopment(5thed.).Boston:AllynandBacon. ^Rogoff,B(2003).Theculturalnatureofhumandevelopment.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. ^Pipher,M(1996).Theshelterofeachother:Rebuildingourfamilies.NewYork:BallantineBooks. ^Swick,K(2004).Empoweringparents,families,schoolsandcommunitiesduringtheearlychildhoodyears.Champaign,IL:Stipes. ^Brazelton,T;Greenspan,S.(2000).Theirreducibleneedsofchildren.Cambridge,MA:PerseusPublishing. ^Swick,KJ;WilliamsR(2006)."AnAnalysisofBronfenbrenner'sBio-EcologicalPerspectiveforEARLYChildhoodEducators:ImplicationsforWorkingwithFamiliesExperiencingStress".EarlyChildhoodEducationJournal.33(5):371–378.doi:10.1007/s10643-006-0078-y.S2CID 59427449. ^abBronfenbrenner,Urie(1979).TheEcologyofHumanDevelopment:ExperimentsbyNatureandDesign.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 0-674-22457-4. ^Galinsky,E(1999).Askthechildren.NewYork:WilliamMorrow&Company. ^McLaren,Lindsay;HaweP(2005)."EcologicalPerspectivesinHealthResearch".JEpidemiolCommunityHealth.59:6–14.doi:10.1136/jech.2003.018044.PMC 1763359.PMID 15598720. ^ AfricanAmericanBoys:Identity,Culture,andDevelopmentHardcover byFayeZ.BelgraveandJoshuaK.Brevardp.9 ^Bronfenbrenner,Urie(2005).Makinghumanbeingshuman:Bioecologicalperspectivesonhumandevelopment.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications. ^Swick,K(2004).Empoweringparents,families,schoolsandcommunitiesduringtheearlychildhoodyears.Champaign,IL:Stipes. ^Garbarino,J(1992).Childrenandfamiliesinthesocialenvironment(2nded).NewYork:AldinedeGruyter. ^abcdBronfenbrenner,U;Morris,P.A.(1998).W.Damon&R.M.Lerner(ed.).TheecologyofdevelopmentalprocessesinHandbookofchildpsychology,Vol.1:Theoreticalmodelsofhumandevelopment(5th ed.).NewYork:JohnWileyandSons,Inc.pp. 993–1023. ^Tudge,J;MokrovaI,KarnikRB&HatfieldBE(2011)."UsesandmisusesofBronfenbrenner'sbioecologicaltheoryofhumandevelopment"(PDF).JournalofFamilyTheory&Review.1(4):198–210.doi:10.1111/j.1756-2589.2009.00026.x. ^abTudge,J;MokrovaI,KarnikRB&HatfieldBE(2011)."UsesandmisusesofBronfenbrenner'sbioecologicaltheoryofhumandevelopment"(PDF).JournalofFamilyTheory&Review.1(4):198–210.doi:10.1111/j.1756-2589.2009.00026.x. ^Quinn,LA.;Thompson,SH.;Ott,MK.ApplicationoftheSocialEcologicalModelinFolicAcidPublicHealthInitiatives.JOGNN,PrinciplesandPractice.34:672-681,2005. ^abGlanz,K.;Rimer,BK.;Viswanath,K.HealthBehaviorandHealthEducation,4thed.SanFrancisco:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.2008. ^White,Franklin;Stallones,Lorann;Last,JohnM.(2013).GlobalPublicHealth:EcologicalFoundations.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-975190-7. ^WhiteF.Primaryhealthcareandpublichealth:foundationsofuniversalhealthsystems.MedPrincPract2015;24:103-116.doi:10.1159/000370197 Furtherreading[edit] Bronfenbrenner,U.(1977).Towardanexperimentalecologyofhumandevelopment.AmericanPsychologist,32,513-531. 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