Genome - Wikipedia

In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA The genome ... Genome FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Allgeneticmaterialofanorganism Foranon-technicalintroductiontothetopic,seeIntroductiontogenetics.Forotheruses,seeGenome(disambiguation). Alabeldiagramexplainingthedifferentpartsofaprokaryoticgenome PartofaseriesonGenetics Keycomponents Chromosome DNA RNA Genome Heredity Mutation Nucleotide Variation Outline Index Historyandtopics Introduction History Evolution(molecular) Populationgenetics Mendelianinheritance Quantitativegenetics Moleculargenetics Research Geneticist DNAsequencing Geneticengineering Genomics(template) Medicalgenetics Branchesofgenetics Personalizedmedicine Personalizedmedicine  Categoryvte Animageofthe46chromosomesmakingupthediploidgenomeofahumanmale.(Themitochondrialchromosomeisnotshown.) Inthefieldsofmolecularbiologyandgenetics,agenomeisallgeneticinformationofanorganism.[1]ItconsistsofnucleotidesequencesofDNA(orRNAinRNAviruses).Thegenomeincludesboththegenes(thecodingregions)andthenoncodingDNA,[2]aswellasmitochondrialDNA[3]andchloroplastDNA.Thestudyofthegenomeiscalledgenomics.Thegenomeforseveralorganismshavebeensequencedandgenesanalyzed,thehumangenomeprojectwhichsequencedtheentiregenomeforHomosapienswassuccessfullycompletedinApril2003. Contents 1Originofterm 2Sequencingandmapping 3Viralgenomes 4Prokaryoticgenomes 5Eukaryoticgenomes 5.1Codingsequences 5.2Noncodingsequences 5.2.1Tandemrepeats 5.2.2Transposableelements 5.2.2.1Retrotransposons 5.2.2.2DNAtransposons 6Genomesize 6.1Genomesizeduetotransposableelements 7Genomicalterations 7.1Genome-widereprogramming 8Genomeevolution 9Infiction 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks Originofterm[edit] Thetermgenomewascreatedin1920byHansWinkler,[4]professorofbotanyattheUniversityofHamburg,Germany.TheOxfordDictionarysuggeststhenameisablendofthewordsgeneandchromosome.[5]However,seeomicsforamorethoroughdiscussion.Afewrelated-omewordsalreadyexisted,suchasbiomeandrhizome,formingavocabularyintowhichgenomefitssystematically.[6] Sequencingandmapping[edit] Furtherinformation:Genomeproject Agenomesequenceisthecompletelistofthenucleotides(A,C,G,andTforDNAgenomes)thatmakeupallthechromosomesofanindividualoraspecies.Withinaspecies,thevastmajorityofnucleotidesareidenticalbetweenindividuals,butsequencingmultipleindividualsisnecessarytounderstandthegeneticdiversity.PartofDNAsequence-prototypificationofcompletegenomeofvirus In1976,WalterFiersattheUniversityofGhent(Belgium)wasthefirsttoestablishthecompletenucleotidesequenceofaviralRNA-genome(BacteriophageMS2).Thenextyear,FredSangercompletedthefirstDNA-genomesequence:PhageΦ-X174,of5386basepairs.[7]Thefirstcompletegenomesequencesamongallthreedomainsoflifewerereleasedwithinashortperiodduringthemid-1990s:ThefirstbacterialgenometobesequencedwasthatofHaemophilusinfluenzae,completedbyateamatTheInstituteforGenomicResearchin1995.Afewmonthslater,thefirsteukaryoticgenomewascompleted,withsequencesofthe16chromosomesofbuddingyeastSaccharomycescerevisiaepublishedastheresultofaEuropean-ledeffortbeguninthemid-1980s.Thefirstgenomesequenceforanarchaeon,Methanococcusjannaschii,wascompletedin1996,againbyTheInstituteforGenomicResearch. Thedevelopmentofnewtechnologieshasmadegenomesequencingdramaticallycheaperandeasier,andthenumberofcompletegenomesequencesisgrowingrapidly.TheUSNationalInstitutesofHealthmaintainsoneofseveralcomprehensivedatabasesofgenomicinformation.[8]Amongthethousandsofcompletedgenomesequencingprojectsincludethoseforrice,amouse,theplantArabidopsisthaliana,thepufferfish,andthebacteriaE.coli.InDecember2013,scientistsfirstsequencedtheentiregenomeofaNeanderthal,anextinctspeciesofhumans.Thegenomewasextractedfromthetoeboneofa130,000-year-oldNeanderthalfoundinaSiberiancave.[9][10] Newsequencingtechnologies,suchasmassiveparallelsequencinghavealsoopeneduptheprospectofpersonalgenomesequencingasadiagnostictool,aspioneeredbyManteiaPredictiveMedicine.Amajorsteptowardthatgoalwasthecompletionin2007ofthefullgenomeofJamesD.Watson,oneoftheco-discoverersofthestructureofDNA.[11] WhereasagenomesequenceliststheorderofeveryDNAbaseinagenome,agenomemapidentifiesthelandmarks.Agenomemapislessdetailedthanagenomesequenceandaidsinnavigatingaroundthegenome.TheHumanGenomeProjectwasorganizedtomapandtosequencethehumangenome.AfundamentalstepintheprojectwasthereleaseofadetailedgenomicmapbyJeanWeissenbachandhisteamattheGenoscopeinParis.[12][13] Referencegenomesequencesandmapscontinuetobeupdated,removingerrorsandclarifyingregionsofhighalleliccomplexity.[14]Thedecreasingcostofgenomicmappinghaspermittedgenealogicalsitestoofferitasaservice,[15]totheextentthatonemaysubmitone'sgenometocrowdsourcedscientificendeavourssuchasDNA.LANDattheNewYorkGenomeCenter,[16]anexamplebothoftheeconomiesofscaleandofcitizenscience.[17] Viralgenomes[edit] ViralgenomescanbecomposedofeitherRNAorDNA.ThegenomesofRNAvirusescanbeeithersingle-strandedRNAordouble-strandedRNA,andmaycontainoneormoreseparateRNAmolecules(segments:monopartitormultipartitgenome).DNAvirusescanhaveeithersingle-strandedordouble-strandedgenomes.MostDNAvirusgenomesarecomposedofasingle,linearmoleculeofDNA,butsomearemadeupofacircularDNAmolecule.[18]TherearealsoviralRNAcalledsinglestrandedRNA:servesastemplateformRNAsynthesis[19]andsinglestrandedRNA:servesastemplateforDNAsynthesis. Theviralenvelope[20]isanouterlayerofmembranethatviralgenomesusetoenterthehostcell.SomeoftheclassesofviralDNAandRNAconsistsofaviralenvelopewhilesomedonot. Prokaryoticgenomes[edit] ProkaryotesandeukaryoteshaveDNAgenomes.Archaeaandmostbacteriahaveasinglecircularchromosome,[21]however,somebacterialspecieshavelinearormultiplechromosomes.[22][23]IftheDNAisreplicatedfasterthanthebacterialcellsdivide,multiplecopiesofthechromosomecanbepresentinasinglecell,andifthecellsdividefasterthantheDNAcanbereplicated,multiplereplicationofthechromosomeisinitiatedbeforethedivisionoccurs,allowingdaughtercellstoinheritcompletegenomesandalreadypartiallyreplicatedchromosomes.MostprokaryoteshaveverylittlerepetitiveDNAintheirgenomes.[24]However,somesymbioticbacteria(e.g.Serratiasymbiotica)havereducedgenomesandahighfractionofpseudogenes:only~40%oftheirDNAencodesproteins.[25][26] Somebacteriahaveauxiliarygeneticmaterial,alsopartoftheirgenome,whichiscarriedinplasmids.Forthis,thewordgenomeshouldnotbeusedasasynonymofchromosome. Eukaryoticgenomes[edit] Seealso:Eukaryoticchromosomefinestructure EukaryoticgenomesarecomposedofoneormorelinearDNAchromosomes.ThenumberofchromosomesvarieswidelyfromJackjumperantsandanasexualnemotode,[27]whicheachhaveonlyonepair,toafernspeciesthathas720pairs.[28]ItissurprisingtheamountofDNAthateukaryoticgenomescontaincomparedtoothergenomes.TheamountisevenmorethanwhatisnecessaryforDNAprotein-codingandnoncodinggenesduetothefactthateukaryoticgenomesshowasmuchas64,000-foldvariationintheirsizes.[29]However,thisspecialcharacteristiciscausedbythepresenceofrepetitiveDNA,andtransposableelements(TEs). Atypicalhumancellhastwocopiesofeachof22autosomes,oneinheritedfromeachparent,plustwosexchromosomes,makingitdiploid.Gametes,suchasova,sperm,spores,andpollen,arehaploid,meaningtheycarryonlyonecopyofeachchromosome.Inadditiontothechromosomesinthenucleus,organellessuchasthechloroplastsandmitochondriahavetheirownDNA.Mitochondriaaresometimessaidtohavetheirowngenomeoftenreferredtoasthe"mitochondrialgenome".TheDNAfoundwithinthechloroplastmaybereferredtoasthe"plastome".Likethebacteriatheyoriginatedfrom,mitochondriaandchloroplastshaveacircularchromosome. Unlikeprokaryotes,eukaryoteshaveexon-intronorganizationofproteincodinggenesandvariableamountsofrepetitiveDNA.Inmammalsandplants,themajorityofthegenomeiscomposedofrepetitiveDNA.[30]GenesineukaryoticgenomescanbeannotatedusingFINDER.[31] Codingsequences[edit] DNAsequencesthatcarrytheinstructionstomakeproteinsarereferredtoascodingsequences.Theproportionofthegenomeoccupiedbycodingsequencesvarieswidely.Alargergenomedoesnotnecessarilycontainmoregenes,andtheproportionofnon-repetitiveDNAdecreasesalongwithincreasinggenomesizeincomplexeukaryotes.[30]Compositionofthehumangenome Noncodingsequences[edit] Mainarticle:Non-codingDNA Seealso:Intergenicregion Noncodingsequencesincludeintrons,sequencesfornon-codingRNAs,regulatoryregions,andrepetitiveDNA.Noncodingsequencesmakeup98%ofthehumangenome.TherearetwocategoriesofrepetitiveDNAinthegenome:tandemrepeatsandinterspersedrepeats.[32] Tandemrepeats[edit] Short,non-codingsequencesthatarerepeatedhead-to-tailarecalledtandemrepeats.Microsatellitesconsistingof2-5basepairrepeats,whileminisatelliterepeatsare30-35bp.Tandemrepeatsmakeupabout4%ofthehumangenomeand9%ofthefruitflygenome.[33]Tandemrepeatscanbefunctional.Forexample,telomeresarecomposedofthetandemrepeatTTAGGGinmammals,andtheyplayanimportantroleinprotectingtheendsofthechromosome. Inothercases,expansionsinthenumberoftandemrepeatsinexonsorintronscancausedisease.[34]Forexample,thehumangenehuntingtintypicallycontains6–29tandemrepeatsofthenucleotidesCAG(encodingapolyglutaminetract).Anexpansiontoover36repeatsresultsinHuntington'sdisease,aneurodegenerativedisease.Twentyhumandisordersareknowntoresultfromsimilartandemrepeatexpansionsinvariousgenes.Themechanismbywhichproteinswithexpandedpolygulataminetractscausedeathofneuronsisnotfullyunderstood.Onepossibilityisthattheproteinsfailtofoldproperlyandavoiddegradation,insteadaccumulatinginaggregatesthatalsosequesterimportanttranscriptionfactors,therebyalteringgeneexpression.[34] Tandemrepeatsareusuallycausedbyslippageduringreplication,unequalcrossing-overandgeneconversion.[35] Transposableelements[edit] Transposableelements(TEs)aresequencesofDNAwithadefinedstructurethatareabletochangetheirlocationinthegenome.[33][24][36]TEsarecategorizedaseitherasamechanismthatreplicatesbycopy-and-pasteorasamechanismthatcanbeexcisedfromthegenomeandinsertedatanewlocation.Inthehumangenome,therearethreeimportantclassesofTEsthatmakeupmorethan45%ofthehumanDNA;theseclassesareThelonginterspersednuclearelements(LINEs),Theinterspersednuclearelements(SINEs),andendogenousretroviruses.Theseelementshaveabigpotentialtomodifythegeneticcontrolinahostorganism.[29] ThemovementofTEsisadrivingforceofgenomeevolutionineukaryotesbecausetheirinsertioncandisruptgenefunctions,homologousrecombinationbetweenTEscanproduceduplications,andTEcanshuffleexonsandregulatorysequencestonewlocations.[37] Retrotransposons[edit] Retrotransposons[38]arefoundmostlyineukaryotesbutnotfoundinprokaryotesandretrotransposonsformalargeportionofgenomesofmanyeukaryotes.RetrotransposonisatransposableelementthattransposethroughanRNAintermediate.Retrotransposons[39]arecomposedofDNA,butaretranscribedintoRNAfortransposition,thentheRNAtranscriptiscopiedbacktoDNAformationwiththehelpofaspecificenzymecalledreversetranscriptase.Retrotransposonsthatcarryreversetranscriptaseintheirgenecantriggeritsowntranspositionbutthegenesthatlackthereversetranscriptasemustusereversetranscriptasesynthesizedbyanotherretrotransposon.RetrotransposonscanbetranscribedintoRNA,whicharethenduplicatedatanothersiteintothegenome.[40]Retrotransposonscanbedividedintolongterminalrepeats(LTRs)andnon-longterminalrepeats(Non-LTRs).[37] Longterminalrepeats(LTRs)arederivedfromancientretroviralinfections,sotheyencodeproteinsrelatedtoretroviralproteinsincludinggag(structuralproteinsofthevirus),pol(reversetranscriptaseandintegrase),pro(protease),andinsomecasesenv(envelope)genes.[36]Thesegenesareflankedbylongrepeatsatboth5'and3'ends.IthasbeenreportedthatLTRsconsistofthelargestfractioninmostplantgenomeandmightaccountforthehugevariationingenomesize.[41] Non-longterminalrepeats(Non-LTRs)areclassifiedaslonginterspersednuclearelements(LINEs),shortinterspersednuclearelements(SINEs),andPenelope-likeelements(PLEs).InDictyosteliumdiscoideum,thereisanotherDIRS-likeelementsbelongtoNon-LTRs.Non-LTRsarewidelyspreadineukaryoticgenomes.[42] Longinterspersedelements(LINEs)encodegenesforreversetranscriptaseandendonuclease,makingthemautonomoustransposableelements.Thehumangenomehasaround500,000LINEs,takingaround17%ofthegenome.[43] Shortinterspersedelements(SINEs)areusuallylessthan500basepairsandarenon-autonomous,sotheyrelyontheproteinsencodedbyLINEsfortransposition.[44]TheAluelementisthemostcommonSINEfoundinprimates.Itisabout350basepairsandoccupiesabout11%ofthehumangenomewitharound1,500,000copies.[37] DNAtransposons[edit] DNAtransposonsencodeatransposaseenzymebetweeninvertedterminalrepeats.Whenexpressed,thetransposaserecognizestheterminalinvertedrepeatsthatflankthetransposonandcatalyzesitsexcisionandreinsertioninanewsite.[33]Thiscut-and-pastemechanismtypicallyreinsertstransposonsneartheiroriginallocation(within100kb).[37]DNAtransposonsarefoundinbacteriaandmakeup3%ofthehumangenomeand12%ofthegenomeoftheroundwormC.elegans.[37] Genomesize[edit] Log-logplotofthetotalnumberofannotatedproteinsingenomessubmittedtoGenBankasafunctionofgenomesize. GenomesizeisthetotalnumberoftheDNAbasepairsinonecopyofahaploidgenome.Genomesizevarieswidelyacrossspecies.Invertebrateshavesmallgenomes,thisisalsocorrelatedtoasmallnumberoftransposableelements.FishandAmphibianshaveintermediate-sizegenomes,andbirdshaverelativelysmallgenomesbutithasbeensuggestedthatbirdslostasubstantialportionoftheirgenomesduringthephaseoftransitiontoflight. Beforethisloss,DNAmethylationallowstheadequateexpansionofthegenome.[29] Inhumans,thenucleargenomecomprisesapproximately3.2billionnucleotidesofDNA,dividedinto24linearmolecules,theshortest50000000nucleotidesinlengthandthelongest260000000nucleotides,eachcontainedinadifferentchromosome.[45]Thereisnoclearandconsistentcorrelationbetweenmorphologicalcomplexityandgenomesizeineitherprokaryotesorlowereukaryotes.[30][46]GenomesizeislargelyafunctionoftheexpansionandcontractionofrepetitiveDNAelements. Sincegenomesareverycomplex,oneresearchstrategyistoreducethenumberofgenesinagenometothebareminimumandstillhavetheorganisminquestionsurvive.Thereisexperimentalworkbeingdoneonminimalgenomesforsinglecellorganismsaswellasminimalgenomesformulti-cellularorganisms(seeDevelopmentalbiology).Theworkisbothinvivoandinsilico.[47][48] Genomesizeduetotransposableelements[edit] Therearemanyenormousdifferencesinsizeingenomes,speciallymentionedbeforeinthemulticellulareukaryoticgenomes.Themainreasonwhythereissuchabigvarietyofsizesisduetothepresenceoftransposableelements.TEsareknowntocontributetoasignificantchangeinacell'smassofDNA.[29]Thisprocessiscorrelatedtotheirlong-termaccommodationinthehostgenome,andtherefore,totheexpansionofthegenomesize. Hereisatableofsomesignificantorrepresentativegenomes.See#Seealsoforlistsofsequencedgenomes. Organismtype Organism Genomesize(basepairs) Approx.no.ofgenes Note Virus Porcinecircovirustype1 1,759 1.8 kB Smallestvirusesreplicatingautonomouslyineukaryoticcells.[49] Virus BacteriophageMS2 3,569 3.5 kB FirstsequencedRNA-genome[50] Virus SV40 5,224 5.2 kB [51] Virus PhageΦ-X174 5,386 5.4 kB FirstsequencedDNA-genome[52] Virus HIV 9,749 9.7 kB [53] Virus Phageλ 48,502 48.5 kB OftenusedasavectorforthecloningofrecombinantDNA. [54] [55] [56] Virus Megavirus 1,259,197 1.3 MB Until2013thelargestknownviralgenome.[57] Virus Pandoravirussalinus 2,470,000 2.47 MB Largestknownviralgenome.[58] Eukaryoticorganelle Humanmitochondrion 16,569 16.6 kB [59] Bacterium Nasuiadeltocephalinicola(strainNAS-ALF) 112,091 112 kB 137 Smallestknownnon-viralgenome.Symbiontofleafhoppers.[60] Bacterium Carsonellaruddii 159,662 160 kB Anendosymbiontofpsyllidinsects Bacterium Buchneraaphidicola 600,000 600 kB Anendosymbiontofaphids[61] Bacterium Wigglesworthiaglossinidia 700,000 700Kb Asymbiontinthegutofthetsetsefly Bacterium–cyanobacterium Prochlorococcusspp.(1.7Mb) 1,700,000 1.7 MB 1,884 Smallestknowncyanobacteriumgenome.OneoftheprimaryphotosynthesizersonEarth.[62][63] Bacterium Haemophilusinfluenzae 1,830,000 1.8 MB Firstgenomeofalivingorganismsequenced,July1995[64] Bacterium Escherichiacoli 4,600,000 4.6 MB 4,288 [65] Bacterium–cyanobacterium Nostocpunctiforme 9,000,000 9 MB 7,432 7432openreadingframes[66] Bacterium Solibacterusitatus(strainEllin6076) 9,970,000 10 MB [67] Amoeboid Polychaosdubium("Amoeba"dubia) 670,000,000,000 670 GB Largestknowngenome.[68](Disputed)[69] Plant Genliseatuberosa 61,000,000 61 MB Smallestrecordedfloweringplantgenome,2014.[70] Plant Arabidopsisthaliana 135,000,000[71] 135MB 27,655[72] Firstplantgenomesequenced,December2000.[73] Plant Populustrichocarpa 480,000,000 480 MB 73,013 Firsttreegenomesequenced,September2006[74] Plant Fritillariaassyriaca 130,000,000,000 130 GB Plant Parisjaponica(Japanese-native,pale-petal) 150,000,000,000 150 GB Largestplantgenomeknown[75] Plant–moss Physcomitrellapatens 480,000,000 480 MB Firstgenomeofabryophytesequenced,January2008.[76] Fungus–yeast Saccharomycescerevisiae 12,100,000 12.1 MB 6,294 Firsteukaryoticgenomesequenced,1996[77] Fungus Aspergillusnidulans 30,000,000 30 MB 9,541 [78] Nematode Pratylenchuscoffeae 20,000,000 20 MB [79]Smallestanimalgenomeknown[80] Nematode Caenorhabditiselegans 100,300,000 100 MB 19,000 Firstmulticellularanimalgenomesequenced,December1998[81] Insect Drosophilamelanogaster(fruitfly) 175,000,000 175 MB 13,600 Sizevariationbasedonstrain(175-180Mb;standardywstrainis175Mb)[82] Insect Apismellifera(honeybee) 236,000,000 236 MB 10,157 [83] Insect Bombyxmori(silkmoth) 432,000,000 432 MB 14,623 14,623predictedgenes[84] Insect Solenopsisinvicta(fireant) 480,000,000 480 MB 16,569 [85] Mammal Musmusculus 2,700,000,000 2.7 GB 20,210 [86] Mammal Panpaniscus 3,286,640,000 3.3 GB 20,000 Bonobo-estimatedgenomesize3.29billionbp[87] Mammal Homosapiens 3,000,000,000 3 GB 20,000 Homosapiensgenomesizeestimatedat3.2Gbpin2001[88][89] Initialsequencingandanalysisofthehumangenome[90] Bird Gallusgallus 1,043,000,000 1.0 GB 20,000 [91] Fish Tetraodonnigroviridis(typeofpufferfish) 385,000,000 390 MB Smallestvertebrategenomeknownestimatedtobe340Mb[92][93]–385Mb.[94] Fish Protopterusaethiopicus(marbledlungfish) 130,000,000,000 130 GB Largestvertebrategenomeknown Genomicalterations[edit] Allthecellsofanorganismoriginatefromasinglecell,sotheyareexpectedtohaveidenticalgenomes;however,insomecases,differencesarise.BoththeprocessofcopyingDNAduringcelldivisionandexposuretoenvironmentalmutagenscanresultinmutationsinsomaticcells.Insomecases,suchmutationsleadtocancerbecausetheycausecellstodividemorequicklyandinvadesurroundingtissues.[95]Incertainlymphocytesinthehumanimmunesystem,V(D)JrecombinationgeneratesdifferentgenomicsequencessuchthateachcellproducesauniqueantibodyorTcellreceptors. Duringmeiosis,diploidcellsdividetwicetoproducehaploidgermcells.Duringthisprocess,recombinationresultsinareshufflingofthegeneticmaterialfromhomologouschromosomessoeachgametehasauniquegenome. Genome-widereprogramming[edit] Genome-widereprogramminginmouseprimordialgermcellsinvolvesepigeneticimprinterasureleadingtototipotency.ReprogrammingisfacilitatedbyactiveDNAdemethylation,aprocessthatentailstheDNAbaseexcisionrepairpathway.[96]ThispathwayisemployedintheerasureofCpGmethylation(5mC)inprimordialgermcells.Theerasureof5mCoccursviaitsconversionto5-hydroxymethylcytosine(5hmC)drivenbyhighlevelsoftheten-elevendioxygenaseenzymesTET1andTET2.[97] Genomeevolution[edit] Genomesaremorethanthesumofanorganism'sgenesandhavetraitsthatmaybemeasuredandstudiedwithoutreferencetothedetailsofanyparticulargenesandtheirproducts.Researcherscomparetraitssuchaskaryotype(chromosomenumber),genomesize,geneorder,codonusagebias,andGC-contenttodeterminewhatmechanismscouldhaveproducedthegreatvarietyofgenomesthatexisttoday(forrecentoverviews,seeBrown2002;SacconeandPesole2003;BenfeyandProtopapas2004;GibsonandMuse2004;Reese2004;Gregory2005). Duplicationsplayamajorroleinshapingthegenome.Duplicationmayrangefromextensionofshorttandemrepeats,toduplicationofaclusterofgenes,andallthewaytoduplicationofentirechromosomesorevenentiregenomes.Suchduplicationsareprobablyfundamentaltothecreationofgeneticnovelty. Horizontalgenetransferisinvokedtoexplainhowthereisoftenanextremesimilaritybetweensmallportionsofthegenomesoftwoorganismsthatareotherwiseverydistantlyrelated.Horizontalgenetransferseemstobecommonamongmanymicrobes.Also,eukaryoticcellsseemtohaveexperiencedatransferofsomegeneticmaterialfromtheirchloroplastandmitochondrialgenomestotheirnuclearchromosomes.Recentempiricaldatasuggestanimportantroleofvirusesandsub-viralRNA-networkstorepresentamaindrivingroletogenerategeneticnoveltyandnaturalgenomeediting. Infiction[edit] Worksofsciencefictionillustrateconcernsabouttheavailabilityofgenomesequences. MichaelCrichton's1990novelJurassicParkandthesubsequentfilmtellthestoryofabillionairewhocreatesathemeparkofcloneddinosaursonaremoteisland,withdisastrousoutcomes.AgeneticistextractsdinosaurDNAfromthebloodofancientmosquitoesandfillsinthegapswithDNAfrommodernspeciestocreateseveralspeciesofdinosaurs.Achaostheoristisaskedtogivehisexpertopiniononthesafetyofengineeringanecosystemwiththedinosaurs,andherepeatedlywarnsthattheoutcomesoftheprojectwillbeunpredictableandultimatelyuncontrollable.Thesewarningsabouttheperilsofusinggenomicinformationareamajorthemeofthebook. The1997filmGattacaissetinafuturistsocietywheregenomesofchildrenareengineeredtocontainthemostidealcombinationoftheirparents'traits,andmetricssuchasriskofheartdiseaseandpredictedlifeexpectancyaredocumentedforeachpersonbasedontheirgenome.Peopleconceivedoutsideoftheeugenicsprogram,knownas"In-Valids"sufferdiscriminationandarerelegatedtomenialoccupations.TheprotagonistofthefilmisanIn-Validwhoworkstodefythesupposedgeneticoddsandachievehisdreamofworkingasaspacenavigator.Thefilmwarnsagainstafuturewheregenomicinformationfuelsprejudiceandextremeclassdifferencesbetweenthosewhocanandcan'taffordgeneticallyengineeredchildren.[98] Seealso[edit] Bacterialgenomesize Cryoconservationofanimalgeneticresources GenomeBrowser GenomeCompiler Genometopology Genome-wideassociationstudy Listofsequencedanimalgenomes Listofsequencedarchaealgenomes Listofsequencedbacterialgenomes Listofsequencedeukaryoticgenomes Listofsequencedfungigenomes Listofsequencedplantgenomes Listofsequencedplastomes 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Furtherreading[edit] BenfeyP,ProtopapasAD(2004).EssentialsofGenomics.PrenticeHall. BrownTA(2002).Genomes2.Oxford:BiosScientificPublishers.ISBN 978-1-85996-029-5. GibsonG,MuseSV(2004).APrimerofGenomeScience(Second ed.).Sunderland,Mass:SinauerAssoc.ISBN 978-0-87893-234-4. GregoryTR(2005).TheEvolutionoftheGenome.Elsevier.ISBN 978-0-12-301463-4. ReeceRJ(2004).AnalysisofGenesandGenomes.Chichester:JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN 978-0-470-84379-6. SacconeC,PesoleG(2003).HandbookofComparativeGenomics.Chichester:JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN 978-0-471-39128-9. WernerE(December2003)."Insilicomulticellularsystemsbiologyandminimalgenomes".DrugDiscoveryToday.8(24):1121–27.doi:10.1016/S1359-6446(03)02918-0.PMID 14678738. 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