Division of labour - Wikipedia

Division of labour, instead, refers to the allocation of tasks to individuals or organisations according to the skills and/or equipment those people or ... Divisionoflabour FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Separationoftasksinanysystemsothatparticipantsmayspecialise VisitingaNailFactorybyLéonardDefrance(18thcentury)PartofaseriesonEconomics History Outline Index Branchesandclassifications Schoolsofeconomics Mainstreameconomics Heterodoxeconomics Economicmethodology Economictheory Politicaleconomy Microeconomics Macroeconomics Internationaleconomics Appliedeconomics Mathematicaleconomics Econometrics JELclassificationcodes Concepts,theoryandtechniques Economicsystems Economicgrowth Market Nationalaccounting Experimentaleconomics Computationaleconomics Gametheory Operationsresearch Middleincometrap Industrialcomplex Byapplication Agricultural Behavioral Business Cultural Demographic Development Digitisation Ecological Economicgeography Economichistory Economicplanning Economicpolicy Economicsociology Economicstatistics Education Engineering Environmental Evolutionary Expeditionary Feminist Financial Happinesseconomics Health Humanisticeconomics Industrialorganisation Information Institutional Knowledge Labour Law Managerial Monetary Naturalresource Organizational Personnel Publiceconomics Public /Socialchoice Regional Rural Service Socioeconomics Solidarityeconomy Urban Welfare Welfareeconomics Notableeconomists FrançoisQuesnay AdamSmith DavidRicardo ThomasRobertMalthus JohnStuartMill WilliamStanleyJevons LéonWalras AlfredMarshall IrvingFisher JohnMaynardKeynes ArthurCecilPigou JohnHicks WassilyLeontief PaulSamuelson more Notablecriticsofeconomy KarlMarx JohnRuskin JeanBaudrillard more Lists Glossary Economists Publications (journals)  BusinessandEconomicsportal  MoneyportalvteThedivisionoflabouristheseparationofthetasksinanyeconomicsystemororganisationsothatparticipantsmayspecialise(specialisation).Individuals,organizations,andnationsareendowedwithoracquirespecialisedcapabilitiesandeitherformcombinationsortradetotakeadvantageofthecapabilitiesofothersinadditiontotheirown.Specialisedcapabilitiesmayincludeequipmentornaturalresourcesaswellasskillsandtrainingandcombinationsofsuchassetsactingtogetherareoftenimportant.Forexample,anindividualmayspecialisebyacquiringtoolsandtheskillstousethemeffectivelyjustasanorganizationmayspecializebyacquiringspecialisedequipmentandhiringortrainingskilledoperators.Thedivisionoflabouristhemotivefortradeandthesourceofeconomicinterdependence. DivisionoflaborCPUandGPU Historically,anincreasingdivisionoflabourisassociatedwiththegrowthoftotaloutputandtrade,theriseofcapitalism,andtheincreasingcomplexityofindustrialisedprocesses.TheconceptandimplementationofdivisionoflabourhasbeenobservedinancientSumerian(Mesopotamian)culture,whereassignmentofjobsinsomecitiescoincidedwithanincreaseintradeandeconomicinterdependence.Divisionoflabourgenerallyalsoincreasesbothproducerandindividualworkerproductivity. AftertheNeolithicRevolution,pastoralismandagricultureledtomorereliableandabundantfoodsupplies,whichincreasedthepopulationandledtospecialisationoflabour,includingnewclassesofartisans,warriors,andthedevelopmentofelites.Thisspecialistionwasfurtheredbytheprocessofindustrialisation,andIndustrialRevolution-erafactories.Accordingly,manyclassicaleconomistsaswellassomemechanicalengineerssuchasCharlesBabbagewereproponentsofdivisionoflabour.Also,havingworkersperformsingleorlimitedtaskseliminatedthelongtrainingperiodrequiredtotraincraftsmen,whowerereplacedwithlesserpaidbutmoreproductiveunskilledworkers.[1] Contents 1Ancienttheories 1.1Plato 1.2Xenophon 1.3AugustineofHippo 1.4IbnKhaldun 2Moderntheories 2.1WilliamPetty 2.2BernarddeMandeville 2.3DavidHume 2.4Henri-LouisDuhamelduMonceau 2.5AdamSmith 2.6ImmanuelKant 2.7KarlMarx 2.8HenryDavidThoreauandRalphWaldoEmerson 2.9ÉmileDurkheim 2.10LudwigvonMises 2.11FriedrichA.Hayek 3Globalisationandglobaldivisionoflabour 4Contemporarytheories 4.1Stylesofdivisionoflabour 4.2Labourhierarchy 5Limitations 6Gendereddivisionoflabour 7Industrialorganisationalpsychology 8Divisionofwork 9Disaggregatedwork 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks Ancienttheories[edit] Plato[edit] InPlato'sRepublic,theoriginofthestateliesinthenaturalinequalityofhumanity,whichisembodiedinthedivisionoflabour: Wellthen,howwillourstatesupplytheseneeds?Itwillneedafarmer,abuilder,andaweaver,andalso,Ithink,ashoemakerandoneortwootherstoprovideforourbodilyneeds.Sothattheminimumstatewouldconsistoffourorfivemen....— Republic(PenguinClassicsed.),p.103 Silvermintz(2010)notesthat"HistoriansofeconomicthoughtcreditPlato,primarilyonaccountofargumentsadvancedinhisRepublic,asanearlyproponentofthedivisionoflabour."[2]Notwithstandingthis,Silvermintzarguesthat"WhilePlatorecognisesboththeeconomicandpoliticalbenefitsofthedivisionoflabour,heultimatelycritiquesthisformofeconomicarrangementinsofarasithinderstheindividualfromorderinghisownsoulbycultivatingacquisitivemotivesoverprudenceandreason."[2] Xenophon[edit] Xenophon,inthe4thcenturyBC,makesapassingreferencetodivisionoflabourinhisCyropaedia(a.k.a.EducationofCyrus). Justasthevarioustradesaremosthighlydevelopedinlargecities,inthesameway,foodatthepalaceispreparedinafarsuperiormanner.Insmalltowns,thesamemanmakescouches,doors,ploughsandtables,andoftenheevenbuildshouses,andstill,heisthankfulifonlyhecanfindenoughworktosupporthimself.Anditisimpossibleforamanofmanytradestodoallofthemwell.Inlargecities,however,becausemanymakedemandsoneachtrade,onealoneisenoughtosupportaman,andoftenlessthanone:forinstanceonemanmakesshoesformen,anotherforwomen,thereareplacesevenwhereonemanearnsalivingjustbymendingshoes,anotherbycuttingthemout,anotherjustbysewingtheupperstogether,whilethereisanotherwhoperformsnoneoftheseoperationsbutassemblestheparts.Ofnecessity,hewhopursuesaveryspecialisedtaskwilldoitbest.[3] AugustineofHippo[edit] AsimileusedbyAugustineofHipposhowsthatthedivisionoflabourwaspractisedandunderstoodinlateImperialRome. …likeworkmeninthestreetofthesilversmiths,whereonevessel,inorderthatitmaygooutperfect,passesthroughthehandsofmany,whenitmighthavebeenfinishedbyoneperfectworkman.Buttheonlyreasonwhythecombinedskillofmanyworkmenwasthoughtnecessary,was,thatitisbetterthateachpartofanartshouldbelearnedbyaspecialworkman,whichcanbedonespeedilyandeasily,thanthattheyshouldallbecompelledtobeperfectinoneartthroughoutallitsparts,whichtheycouldonlyattainslowlyandwithdifficulty.— TheCityofGod(tr.MarcusDods),VII.4 IbnKhaldun[edit] The14th-centuryscholarIbnKhaldunemphasisedtheimportanceofthedivisionoflabourintheproductionprocess.InhisMuqaddimah,hestates: Thepoweroftheindividualhumanbeingisnotsufficientforhimtoobtain(thefood)heneeds,anddoesnotprovidehimwithasmuchasherequirestolive.Evenifweassumeanabsoluteminimumoffood...thatamountoffoodcouldbeobtainedonlyaftermuchpreparation...Thus,hecannotdowithoutacombinationofmanypowersfromamonghisfellowbeings,ifheistoobtainfoodforhimselfandforthem.Throughcooperation,theneedsofanumberofpersons,manytimesgreaterthantheirownnumber,canbesatisfied.[4] Moderntheories[edit] WilliamPetty[edit] SirWilliamPetty Petty-EconomicWritings,1899 SirWilliamPettywasthefirstmodernwritertotakenoteofthedivisionoflabour,showingitsexistenceandusefulnessinDutchshipyards.Classicallytheworkersinashipyardwouldbuildshipsasunits,finishingonebeforestartinganother.ButtheDutchhaditorganisedwithseveralteamseachdoingthesametasksforsuccessiveships.Peoplewithaparticulartasktodomusthavediscoverednewmethodsthatwereonlylaterobservedandjustifiedbywritersonpoliticaleconomy. PettyalsoappliedtheprincipletohissurveyofIreland.Hisbreakthroughwastodivideuptheworksothatlargepartsofitcouldbedonebypeoplewithnoextensivetraining. BernarddeMandeville[edit] FableoftheBeesbyBernardMandeville BernarddeMandevillediscussesthematterinthesecondvolumeofTheFableoftheBees(1714).Thiselaboratesmanymattersraisedbytheoriginalpoemabouta'GrumblingHive'.Hesays: ButifonewillwhollyapplyhimselftothemakingofBowsandArrows,whilstanotherprovidesFood,athirdbuildsHuts,afourthmakesGarments,andafifthUtensils,theynotonlybecomeusefultooneanother,buttheCallingsandEmploymentsthemselveswillinthesameNumberofYearsreceivemuchgreaterImprovements,thanifallhadbeenpromiscuouslyfollowedbyeveryoneoftheFive. DavidHume[edit] "Wheneveryindividualpersonlaborsapart,andonlyforhimself,hisforceistoosmalltoexecuteanyconsiderablework;hislabourbeingemployedinsupplyingallhisdifferentnecessities,heneverattainsaperfectioninanyparticularart;andashisforceandsuccessarenotatalltimesequal,theleastfailureineitheroftheseparticularsmustbeattendedwithinevitableruinandmisery.Societyprovidesaremedyforthesethreeinconveniences.Bytheconjunctionofforces,ourpowerisaugmented:Bythepartitionofemployment,ourabilityincreases:Andbymutualsuccourwearelessexposedtofortuneandaccidents.'Tisbythisadditionalforce,ability,andsecurity,thatsocietybecomesadvantageous."-DavidHume,ATreatiseonHumanNature Henri-LouisDuhamelduMonceau[edit] FacsimileofthefirstpageofduMonceau'sintroductiontoArtdel'Épinglier,with"divisiondecetravail"highlighted InhisintroductiontoTheArtofthePin-Maker(Artdel'Épinglier,1761),[5]Henri-LouisDuhamelduMonceauwritesaboutthe"divisionofthiswork":[5] Thereisnobodywhoisnotsurprisedofthesmallpriceofpins;butweshallbeevenmoresurprised,whenweknowhowmanydifferentoperations,mostofthemverydelicate,aremandatorytomakeagoodpin.Wearegoingtogothroughtheseoperationsinafewwordstostimulatethecuriositytoknowtheirdetail;thisenumerationwillsupplyasmanyarticleswhichwillmakethedivisionofthiswork.…Thefirstoperationistohavebrassgothroughthedrawingplatetocalibrateit.… By"divisionofthiswork,"duMonceauisreferringtothesubdivisionsof thetextdescribingthevarioustradesinvolvedinthepinmakingactivity;thiscanalsobedescribedasadivisionoflabour. AdamSmith[edit] AdamSmithportrait InthefirstsentenceofAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations(1776),AdamSmithforesawtheessenceofindustrialismbydeterminingthatdivisionoflabourrepresentsasubstantialincreaseinproductivity.LikeduMonceau,hisexamplewasthemakingofpins. UnlikePlato,Smithfamouslyarguedthatthedifferencebetweenastreetporterandaphilosopherwasasmuchaconsequenceofthedivisionoflabourasitscause.Therefore,whileforPlatothelevelofspecialisationdeterminedbythedivisionoflabourwasexternallydetermined,forSmithitwasthedynamicengineofeconomicprogress.However,inafurtherchapterofthesamebook,Smithcriticisesthedivisionoflaboursayingitcanleadto"thealmostentirecorruptionanddegeneracyofthegreatbodyofthepeople.…unlessthegovernmenttakessomepainstopreventit."[6]ThecontradictionhasledtosomedebateoverSmith'sopinionofthedivisionoflabour.[7]AlexisdeTocquevilleagreedwithSmith:"Nothingtendstomaterializeman,andtodeprivehisworkofthefaintesttraceofmind,morethanextremedivisionoflabor."[8]AdamFergusonsharedsimilarviewstoSmith,thoughwasgenerallymorenegative.[9] Thespecialisationandconcentrationoftheworkersontheirsinglesubtasksoftenleadstogreaterskillandgreaterproductivityontheirparticularsubtasksthanwouldbeachievedbythesamenumberofworkerseachcarryingouttheoriginalbroadtask,inpartduetoincreasedqualityofproduction,butmoreimportantlybecauseofincreasedefficiencyofproduction,leadingtoahighernominaloutputofunitsproducedpertimeunit.[10]Smithusestheexampleofaproductioncapabilityofanindividualpinmakercomparedtoamanufacturingbusinessthatemployed10men:[11]Onemandrawsoutthewire;anotherstraightsit;athirdcutsit;afourthpointsit;afifthgrindsitatthetopforreceivingthehead;tomaketheheadrequirestwoorthreedistinctoperations;toputitonisapeculiarbusiness;towhitenthepinsisanother;itisevenatradebyitselftoputthemintothepaper;andtheimportantbusinessofmakingapinis,inthismanner,dividedintoabouteighteendistinctoperations,which,insomemanufactories,areallperformedbydistincthands,thoughinothersthesamemanwillsometimesperformtwoorthreeofthem.Ihaveseenasmallmanufactoryofthiskind,wheretenmenonlywereemployed,andwheresomeofthemconsequentlyperformedtwoorthreedistinctoperations.Butthoughtheywereverypoor,andthereforebutindifferentlyaccommodatedwiththenecessarymachinery,theycould,whentheyexertedthemselves,makeamongthemabouttwelvepoundsofpinsinaday.Thereareinapoundupwardsoffourthousandpinsofamiddlingsize.Thosetenpersons,therefore,couldmakeamongthemupwardsofforty-eightthousandpinsinaday.Eachperson,therefore,makingatenthpartofforty-eightthousandpins,mightbeconsideredasmakingfourthousandeighthundredpinsinaday.Butiftheyhadallwroughtseparatelyandindependently,andwithoutanyofthemhavingbeeneducatedtothispeculiarbusiness,theycertainlycouldnoteachofthemhavemadetwenty,perhapsnotonepininaday.Smithsawtheimportanceofmatchingskillswithequipment—usuallyinthecontextofanorganisation.Forexample,pinmakerswereorganisedwithonemakingthehead,anotherthebody,eachusingdifferentequipment.Similarly,heemphasisedalargenumberofskills,usedincooperationandwithsuitableequipment,wererequiredtobuildaship. Inthemoderneconomicdiscussion,thetermhumancapitalwouldbeused.Smith'sinsightsuggeststhatthehugeincreasesinproductivityobtainablefromtechnologyortechnologicalprogressarepossiblebecausehumanandphysicalcapitalarematched,usuallyinanorganisation.SeealsoashortdiscussionofAdamSmith'stheoryinthecontextofbusinessprocesses.Babbagewroteaseminalwork"OntheEconomyofMachineryandManufactures"analysingperhapsforthefirsttimethedivisionoflabourinfactories.[12] ImmanuelKant[edit] Kant IntheGroundworkoftheMetaphysicsofMorals(1785),ImmanuelKantnotesthevalueofthedivisionoflabour:[13]Allcrafts,tradesandartshaveprofitedfromthedivisionoflabour;forwheneachworkerstickstooneparticularkindofworkthatneedstobehandleddifferentlyfromalltheothers,hecandoitbetterandmoreeasilythanwhenonepersondoeseverything.Whereworkisnotthusdifferentiatedanddivided,whereeveryoneisajack-of-all-trades,thecraftsremainatanutterlyprimitivelevel. KarlMarx[edit] PartofaseriesonMarxism Theoreticalworks EconomicandPhilosophicManuscriptsof1844 ThesesonFeuerbach TheGermanIdeology WageLabourandCapital TheCommunistManifesto TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte GrundrissederKritikderPolitischenÖkonomie AContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy DasKapital CritiqueoftheGothaProgramme DialecticsofNature Philosophy Economicdeterminism Historicalmaterialism Marx'sdialectic Marx'smethod Philosophyofnature Economics Capital(accumulation) Crisistheory Commodity Critiqueofpoliticaleconomy Concreteandabstractlabor Factorsofproduction Fallingprofit-ratetendency Meansofproduction Modeofproduction Asiatic Capitalist Socialist Productiveforces Scientificsocialism Surplusproduct Sociallynecessarylabourtime Value-form Wagelabour Sociology Alienation Baseandsuperstructure Bourgeoisie Class Classconsciousness Classstruggle Classlesssociety Commodityfetishism Communistsociety Critiqueofpoliticaleconomy Culturalhegemony Democracy Dictatorshipoftheproletariat Exploitation Freeassociation Generalintellect Humannature Ideology Immiseration Imperialism Lumpenproletariat Metabolicrift Proletariat Privateproperty Relationsofproduction Reification Statetheory Socialmetabolism Workingclass History AnarchismandMarxism PhilosophyintheSovietUnion Primitiveaccumulation Proletarianrevolution Proletarianinternationalism Worldrevolution YoungMarx Aspects Aesthetics Archaeology Criminology Culturalanalysis Feminism Filmtheory Geography Historiography Literarycriticism Marxismandreligion Classicalvariants Hegelian Humanist NeueMarx-Lektüre Western PraxisSchool Orthodoxvariants Instrumental Impossibilism Leninism Bolshevism Left Marxism–Leninism Trotskyism Neo-Trotskyism Orthodox Pabloism Posadism Thirdcamp Bordigism Nkrumaism Rightcommunism Luxemburgism Menshevism Marxism–Leninism Anti-revisionism Castroism Guevarism HoChiMinhThought Hoxhaism Husakism Juche Kadarism Khrushchevism Maoism Marxism–Leninism–Maoism GonzaloThought Maoism-ThirdWorldism PrachandaPath SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics Dengism ScientificOutlookonDevelopment ThreeRepresents XiJinpingThought Stalinism Titoism Leftcommunistvariants Autonomism Bordigism Communization Councilcommunism LeftBolshevism Situationism Libertarianvariants Autonomism Councilcommunism DeLeonism Lettrism Mao-Spontex Neo-Marxism Analytical Freudian FrankfurtSchool Open Structural Situationism Othervariants BudapestSchool Centrist Austromarxism Democraticsocialism Eurocommunism Feminist Neo-Gramscianism Political Post-Marxism Revisionist Shachtmanism People KarlMarx Engels Bebel Bernstein DeLeon Kautsky EleanorMarx Debs Hardie Plekhanov Zetkin Gorky Connolly Lenin Luxemburg Liebknecht Kollontai Pannekoek Bukharin Stalin Trotsky Borochov Lukács Korsch Ho Gramsci Benjamin Mao Horkheimer Ibárruri Reich Aragon Brecht Marcuse Fromm Lefebvre Adorno Sartre Rubel Beauvoir Allende Dunayevskaya Mills Hobsbawm Althusser Pasolini Zinn Miliband Parenti Bauman Guevara Castro Debord Fanon Harvey Wolff Sankara Žižek Losurdo Wood Relatedtopics Criticaltheory CriticismofMarxism Communism Historyofcommunism Left-wingpolitics NewLeft OldLeft Socialdemocracy Socialanarchism Anarcho-communism Socialism Libertarian Revolutionary Utopian RelatedcategoriesKarlMarx Outline  Communismportal  Philosophyportal  Socialismportalvte Marxarguedthatincreasingthespecialisationmayalsoleadtoworkerswithpooreroverallskillsandalackofenthusiasmfortheirwork.Hedescribedtheprocessasalienation:workersbecomemoreandmorespecialisedandworkbecomesrepetitive,eventuallyleadingtocompletealienationfromtheprocessofproduction.Theworkerthenbecomes"depressedspirituallyandphysicallytotheconditionofamachine."[14] Additionally,Marxarguedthatthedivisionoflabourcreatesless-skilledworkers.Astheworkbecomesmorespecialised,lesstrainingisneededforeachspecificjob,andtheworkforce,overall,islessskilledthanifoneworkerdidonejobentirely.[15] AmongMarx'stheoreticalcontributionsishissharpdistinctionbetweentheeconomicandthesocialdivisionoflabour.[16]Thatis,someformsoflabourco-operationarepurelydueto"technicalnecessity",butothersarearesultofa"socialcontrol"functionrelatedtoaclassandstatushierarchy.Ifthesetwodivisionsareconflated,itmightappearasthoughtheexistingdivisionoflabouristechnicallyinevitableandimmutable,ratherthan(ingoodpart)sociallyconstructedandinfluencedbypowerrelationships.Healsoarguesthatinacommunistsociety,thedivisionoflabouristranscended,meaningthatbalancedhumandevelopmentoccurswherepeoplefullyexpresstheirnatureinthevarietyofcreativeworkthattheydo.[17] HenryDavidThoreauandRalphWaldoEmerson[edit] HenryDavidThoreaucriticisedthedivisionoflabourinWalden(1854),onthebasisthatitremovespeoplefromasenseofconnectednesswithsocietyandwiththeworldatlarge,includingnature.Heclaimedthattheaveragemaninacivilisedsocietyislesswealthy,inpracticethanonein"savage"society.Theanswerhegavewasthatself-sufficiencywasenoughtocoverone'sbasicneeds.[18] Thoreau'sfriendandmentor,RalphWaldoEmerson,criticisedthedivisionoflabourinhis"TheAmericanScholar"speech:awidelyinformed,holisticcitizenryisvitalforthespiritualandphysicalhealthofthecountry.[18] ÉmileDurkheim[edit] Inhisseminalwork,TheDivisionofLaborinSociety,ÉmileDurkheim[19]observesthatthedivisionoflabourappearsinallsocietiesandpositivelycorrelateswithsocietaladvancementbecauseitincreasesasasocietyprogresses. Durkheimarrivedatthesameconclusionregardingthepositiveeffectsofthedivisionoflabourashistheoreticalpredecessor,AdamSmith.InTheWealthoftheNations,Smithobservesthedivisionoflabourresultsin"aproportionableincreaseoftheproductivepowersoflabour."[20]Whiletheysharedthisbelief,Durkheimbelievedthedivisionoflabourappliedtoall"biologicalorganismsgenerally,"whileSmithbelievedthislawapplied"onlytohumansocieties."[21]ThisdifferencemayresultfromtheinfluenceofCharlesDarwin'sOntheOriginofSpeciesonDurkheim'swritings.[21]Forexample,Durkheimobservedanapparentrelationshipbetween"thefunctionalspecialisationofthepartsofanorganism"and"theextentofthatorganism'sevolutionarydevelopment,"whichhebelieved"extendedthescopeofthedivisionoflaboursoastomakeitsoriginscontemporaneouswiththeoriginsoflifeitself…implyingthatitsconditionsmustbefoundintheessentialpropertiesofallorganisedmatter."[21] SinceDurkheim'sdivisionoflabourappliedtoallorganisms,heconsideredita"naturallaw"andworkedtodeterminewhetheritshouldbeembracedorresistedbyfirstanalysingitsfunctions.[21]Durkheimhypothesisedthatthedivisionoflabourfosterssocialsolidarity,yielding"awhollymoralphenomenon"thatensures"mutualrelationships"amongindividuals.[22] ÉmileDurkheim Associalsolidaritycannotbedirectlyquantified,Durkheimindirectlystudiessolidarityby"classify[ing]thedifferenttypesoflawtofind...thedifferenttypesofsocialsolidaritywhichcorrespondtoit."[22]Durkheimcategorises:[23] criminallawsandtheirrespectivepunishmentsaspromotingmechanicalsolidarity,asenseofunityresultingfromindividualsengaginginsimilarworkwhoholdsharedbackgrounds,traditions,andvalues;and civillawsaspromotingorganicsolidarity,asocietyinwhichindividualsengageindifferentkindsofworkthatbenefitsocietyandotherindividuals. Durkheimbelievesthatorganicsolidarityprevailsinmoreadvancedsocieties,whilemechanicalsolidaritytypifieslessdevelopedsocieties.[24]Heexplainsthatinsocietieswithmoremechanicalsolidarity,thediversityanddivisionoflabourismuchless,soindividualshaveasimilarworldview.[25]Similarly,Durkheimopinesthatinsocietieswithmoreorganicsolidarity,thediversityofoccupationsisgreater,andindividualsdependoneachothermore,resultingingreaterbenefitstosocietyasawhole.[25]Durkheim'sworkenabledsocialsciencetoprogressmoreefficiently"in…theunderstandingofhumansocialbehavior."[26] LudwigvonMises[edit] LudwigvonMises Marx'stheories,includinghisnegativeclaimsregardingthedivisionoflabour,havebeencriticisedbytheAustrianeconomists,notablyLudwigvonMises.Theprimaryargumentisthattheeconomicgainsaccruingfromthedivisionoflabourfaroutweighthecosts,thusdevelopingonthethesisthatdivisionoflaborleadstocostefficiencies.Itisarguedthatitisfullypossibletoachievebalancedhumandevelopmentwithincapitalismandalienationisdownplayedasmereromanticfiction. AccordingtoMises,theideahasledtotheconceptofmechanizationinwhichaspecifictaskisperformedbyamechanicaldevice,insteadofanindividuallabourer.Thismethodofproductionissignificantlymoreeffectiveinbothyieldandcost-effectiveness,andutilisesthedivisionoflabourtothefullestextentpossible.Misessawtheveryideaofataskbeingperformedbyaspecialisedmechanicaldeviceasbeingthegreatestachievementofdivisionoflabour.[27] FriedrichA.Hayek[edit] In"TheUseofKnowledgeinSociety",FriedrichA.Hayekstates:[28] FriedrichHayekportrait Thepricesystemisjustoneofthoseformationswhichmanhaslearnedtouse(thoughheisstillveryfarfromhavinglearnedtomakethebestuseofit)afterhehadstumbleduponitwithoutunderstandingit.Throughit,notonlyadivisionoflabourbutalsoacoordinatedutilisationofresourcesbasedonanequallydividedknowledgehasbecomepossible.Thepeoplewholiketoderideanysuggestionthatthismaysousuallydistorttheargumentbyinsinuatingthatitassertsthatbysomemiraclejustthatsortofsystemhasspontaneouslygrownupwhichisbestsuitedtomoderncivilisation.Itistheotherwayround:manhasbeenabletodevelopthatdivisionoflabouronwhichourcivilisationisbasedbecausehehappenedtostumbleuponamethodwhichmadeitpossible.Hadhenotdoneso,hemightstillhavedevelopedsomeother,altogetherdifferent,typeofcivilisation,somethinglikethe"state"ofthetermiteants,orsomeotheraltogetherunimaginabletype. Globalisationandglobaldivisionoflabour[edit] Theissuereachesitsbroadestscopeinthecontroversiesaboutglobalisation,whichisofteninterpretedasaeuphemismfortheexpansionofinternationaltradebasedoncomparativeadvantage.Thiswouldmeanthatcountriesspecialiseintheworktheycandoatthelowestrelativecostmeasuredintermsoftheopportunitycostofnotusingresourcesforotherwork,comparedtotheopportunitycostsexperiencedcountries.Critics,however,allegethatinternationalspecialisationcannotbeexplainedsufficientlyintermsof"theworknationsdobest",ratherthisspecialisationisguidedmorebycommercialcriteria,whichfavoursomecountriesoverothers.[29][30] TheOECDadvisedinJune2005that:[citationneeded] Efficientpoliciestoencourageemploymentandcombatunemploymentareessentialifcountriesaretoreapthefullbenefitsofglobalisationandavoidabacklashagainstopentrade...Joblossesinsomesectors,alongwithnewjobopportunitiesinothersectors,areaninevitableaccompanimentoftheprocessofglobalisation...Thechallengeistoensurethattheadjustmentprocessinvolvedinmatchingavailableworkerswithnewjobopeningsworksassmoothlyaspossible. Fewstudieshavetakenplaceregardingtheglobaldivisionoflabour.InformationcanbedrawnfromILOandnationalstatisticaloffices.[31]Inonestudy,DeonFilmerestimatedthat2.474billionpeopleparticipatedintheglobalnon-domesticlabourforceinthemid-1990s.Ofthese:[citationneeded] around15%,or379millionpeople,workedintheindustry; athird,or800millionworkedinservicesand over40%,or1,074million,inagriculture. Themajorityofworkersinindustryandserviceswerewageandsalaryearners—58percentoftheindustrialworkforceand65percentoftheservicesworkforce.Butabigportionwasself-employedorinvolvedinfamilylabour.Filmersuggeststhetotalofemployeesworldwideinthe1990swasabout880million,comparedwitharoundabillionworkingonownaccountontheland(mainlypeasants),andsome480millionworkingonownaccountinindustryandservices.The2007ILOGlobalEmploymentTrendsReportindicatedthatserviceshavesurpassedagricultureforthefirsttimeinhumanhistory:[31]In2006theservicesector’sshareofglobalemploymentovertookagricultureforthefirsttime,increasingfrom39.5to40percent.Agriculturedecreasedfrom39.7percentto38.7percent.Theindustrysectoraccountedfor21.3percentoftotalemployment. Contemporarytheories[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage)Thissection'stoneorstylemaynotreflecttheencyclopedictoneusedonWikipedia.SeeWikipedia'sguidetowritingbetterarticlesforsuggestions.(January2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Inthemodernworld,thosespecialistsmostpreoccupiedintheirworkwiththeorisingaboutthedivisionoflabourarethoseinvolvedinmanagementandorganisation. Ingeneral,incapitalisteconomies,suchthingsarenotdecidedconsciously.[32]Differentpeopletrydifferentthings,andthatwhichismosteffectivecost-wise(producesthemostandbestoutputwiththeleastinput)willgenerallybeadopted.Oftentechniquesthatworkinoneplaceortimedonotworkaswellinanother. Stylesofdivisionoflabour[edit] Twostylesofmanagementthatareseeninmodernorganisationsarecontrolandcommitment:[33] Controlmanagement,thestyleofthepast,isbasedontheprinciplesofjobspecialisationandthedivisionoflabour.Thisistheassembly-linestyleofjobspecialisation,whereemployeesaregivenaverynarrowsetoftasksoronespecifictask. Commitmentdivisionoflabour,thestyleofthefuture,isorientedonincludingtheemployeeandbuildingalevelofinternalcommitmenttowardsaccomplishingtasks.Tasksincludemoreresponsibilityandarecoordinatedbasedonexpertiseratherthanformalposition. Jobspecialisationisadvantageousindevelopingemployeeexpertiseinafieldandboostingorganisationalproduction.However,disadvantagesofjobspecialisationincludedlimitedemployeeskill,dependenceonentiredepartmentfluency,andemployeediscontentwithrepetitivetasks.[33] Labourhierarchy[edit] Itiswidelyaccepted[accordingtowhom?]withincapitalistsocietiesthatthedivisionoflabouristoagreatextentinevitable,simplybecausenoonecandoalltasksatonce.Labourhierarchyisaverycommonfeatureofthemoderncapitalistworkplacestructure,andthewaythesehierarchiesarestructuredcanbeinfluencedbyavarietyofdifferentfactors,including:[33] Size:asorganisationsincreaseinsize,thereisacorrelationintheriseofthedivisionoflabour. Cost:costlimitssmallorganisationsfromdividingtheirlabourresponsibilities. Developmentofnewtechnology:technologicaldevelopmentshaveledtoadecreaseintheamountofjobspecialisationinorganisationsasnewtechnologymakesiteasierforfeweremployeestoaccomplishavarietyoftasksandstillenhanceproduction.Newtechnologyhasalsobeensupportiveintheflowofinformationbetweendepartmentshelpingtoreducethefeelingofdepartmentisolation. Itisoftenargued[accordingtowhom?]thatthemostequitableprincipleinallocatingpeoplewithinhierarchiesisthatoftrue(orproven)competencyorability.Thisconceptofmeritocracycouldbereadasanexplanationorasajustificationofwhyadivisionoflabouristhewayitis.[citationneeded] Thisclaim,however,isoftendisputedbyvarioussources,particularly: Marxists[34]claimhierarchyiscreatedtosupportthepowerstructuresincapitalistsocietieswhichmaintainthecapitalistclassastheownerofthelabourofworkers,inordertoexploitit.Anarchists[35]oftenaddtothisanalysisbydefendingthatthepresenceofcoercivehierarchyinanyformiscontrarytothevaluesoflibertyandequality. Anti-imperialistsseetheglobalisedlabourhierarchybetweenfirstworldandthirdworldcountriesnecessitatedbycompanies(throughunequalexchange)whichcreatealaboraristocracybyexploitingthepovertyofworkersinthedevelopingworld,wherewagesaremuchlower.Theseincreasedprofitsenablethesecompaniestopayhigherwagesandtaxesinthedevelopedworld(whichfundwelfareinfirstworldcountries),thuscreatingaworkingclasssatisfiedwiththeirstandardoflivingandnotinclinedtorevolution.[36]Thisconceptisfurtherexploredindependencytheory,notablybySamirAmin[30]andZakCope.[29] Limitations[edit] AdamSmithfamouslysaidinTheWealthofNationsthatthedivisionoflabourislimitedbytheextentofthemarket.Thisisbecauseitisbytheexchangethateachpersoncanbespecialisedintheirworkandyetstillhaveaccesstoawiderangeofgoodsandservices.Hence,reductionsinbarrierstoexchangeleadtoincreasesinthedivisionoflabourandsohelptodriveeconomicgrowth.Limitationstothedivisionoflabourhavealsobeenrelatedtocoordinationandtransportationcosts.[37] Therecanbemotivationaladvantagestoareduceddivisionoflabour(whichhasbeentermed‘jobenlargement’and'jobenrichment').[38]Jobsthataretoospecialisedinanarrowrangeoftasksaresaidtoresultindemotivationduetoboredomandalienation.Hence,aTayloristapproachtoworkdesigncontributedtoworsenedindustrialrelations. Therearealsolimitationstothedivisionoflabour(andthedivisionofwork)thatresultfromworkflowvariationsanduncertainties.[39][40]Thesehelptoexplainissuesinmodernworkorganisation,suchastaskconsolidationsinbusinessprocessreengineeringandtheuseofmulti-skilledworkteams.Forinstance,onestageofaproductionprocessmaytemporarilyworkataslowerpace,forcingotherstagestoslowdown.Oneanswertothisistomakesomeportionofresourcesmobilebetweenstagessothatthoseresourcesmustbecapableofundertakingawiderrangeoftasks.Anotheristoconsolidatetaskssothattheyareundertakenoneafteranotherbythesameworkersandotherresources.Stocksbetweenstagescanalsohelptoreducetheproblemtosomeextentbutarecostlyandcanhamperqualitycontrol.Modernflexiblemanufacturingsystemsrequirebothflexiblemachinesandflexibleworkers. Inproject-basedwork,thecoordinationofresourcesisadifficultissuefortheprojectmanagerasprojectschedulesandresultingresourcebookingsarebasedonestimatesoftaskdurationsandsoaresubjecttosubsequentrevisions.Again,consolidatingtaskssothattheyareundertakenconsecutivelybythesameresourcesandhavingresourcesavailablethatcanbecalledonatshort-noticefromothertaskscanhelptoreducesuchproblems,thoughatthecostofreducedspecialisation. Therearealsoadvantagesinareduceddivisionoflabourwhereknowledgewouldotherwisehavetobetransferredbetweenstages.[41]Forexample,havingasinglepersondealwithacustomerquerymeansthatonlythatonepersonhastobefamiliarisedwiththecustomer'sdetails.Itisalsolikelytoresultinthequerybeinghandledfasterduetotheeliminationofdelaysinpassingthequerybetweendifferentpeople. Gendereddivisionoflabour[edit] Mainarticles:Genderrole,Women'swork,Sexualdivisionoflabour,andOccupationalsegregationThissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Theclearestexpositionoftheprinciplesofsexualdivisionoflabouracrossthefullrangeofhumansocietiescanbesummarisedbyalargenumberoflogicallycomplementaryimplicationalconstraintsofthefollowingform:ifwomenofchildbearingagesinagivencommunitytendtodoX(e.g.,preparingsoilforplanting)theywillalsodoY(e.g.,theplanting)whileformenthelogicalreversalinthisexamplewouldbethatifmenplanttheywillpreparethesoil. White,Brudner,andBurton's(1977)"EntailmentTheoryandMethod:ACross-CulturalAnalysisoftheSexualDivisionofLabor",[42]usingstatisticalentailmentanalysis,showsthattasksmorefrequentlychosenbywomenintheseorderrelationsarethosemoreconvenientinrelationtochildrearing.Thistypeoffindinghasbeenreplicatedinavarietyofstudies,includingmodernindustrialeconomies.Theseentailmentsdonotrestricthowmuchworkforanygiventaskcouldbedonebymen(e.g.,incooking)orbywomen(e.g.,inclearingforests)butareonlyleast-effortorrole-consistenttendencies.Totheextentthatwomenclearforestsforagriculture,forexample,theytendtodotheentireagriculturalsequenceoftasksonthoseclearings.Intheory,thesetypesofconstraintscouldberemovedbyprovisionsofchildcare,butethnographicexamplesarelacking. Industrialorganisationalpsychology[edit] Jobsatisfactionhasbeenshowntoimproveasanemployeeisgiventhetaskofaspecificjob.StudentswhohavereceivedPhDsinachosenfieldlaterreportincreasedsatisfactioncomparedtotheirpreviousjobs.Thiscanbeattributedtotheirhighlevelsofspecialisation.[43]Thehigherthetrainingneededforthespecialisedjobposition,thehigheristhelevelofjobsatisfactionaswell,althoughmanyhighlyspecialisedjobscanbemonotonousandproducehighratesofburnoutperiodically.[44] Divisionofwork[edit] Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Incontrasttothedivisionoflabour,adivisionofworkreferstothedivisionofalargetask,contract,orprojectintosmallertasks—eachwithaseparateschedulewithintheoverallprojectschedule. Divisionoflabour,instead,referstotheallocationoftaskstoindividualsororganisationsaccordingtotheskillsand/orequipmentthosepeopleororganisationspossess.Oftendivisionoflabouranddivisionofworkarebothpartoftheeconomicactivitywithinanindustrialnationororganisation. Disaggregatedwork[edit] Mainarticle:Disaggregatedwork Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Ajobdividedintoelementalpartsissometimescalled"disaggregatedwork".Workersspecialisinginparticularpartsofthejobarecalledprofessionals.Theworkersdoingaportionofanon-recurringworkmaybecalledcontractors,freelancers,ortemporaryworkers.Moderncommunicationtechnologies,particularlytheInternet,gaverisetothesharingeconomy,whichisorchestratedbyonlinemarketplacesofvariouskindsofdisaggregatedwork. Seealso[edit] Economiesofscale Complexsociety Economicsector Familyeconomy Fordism Newinternationaldivisionoflabour Productiveandunproductivelabour Pricesystem Surplusproduct Timeusesurvey Urbanisation Industrialisation Mechanization Newlyindustrializedcountry References[edit] ^ Rosenberg,Nathan(1993).ExploringtheBlackBox:Technology,economicsandhistory.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 25,27–32,37–8.ISBN 0-521-459559. ^abSilvermintz,Daniel(2010)."Plato'sSupposedDefenseoftheDivisionofLabor:AReexaminationoftheRoleofJobSpecialisationintheRepublic".HistoryofPoliticalEconomy.42(4):747–72.doi:10.1215/00182702-2010-036. ^BookVIII,ch,ii,4[]-6,citedinTheAncientEconomybyM.I.Finley.Penguinbooks1992,p.135. ^Abdullahi,AliArazeem;Salawu,Bashir(1October2012)."IbnKhaldun:AForgottenSociologist?".SouthAfricanReviewofSociology.43(3):24–40.doi:10.1080/21528586.2012.727543.S2CID 147432359. ^abduMonceau,Henri-LouisDuhamel.1761."Introduction."InArtdel'Épinglier,byR.Réaumur,andA.deFerchault.Paris:SaillantetNyon. ^"Themanwhosewholelifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations,ofwhichtheeffectsareperhapsalwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame,hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstandingortoexercisehisinventioninfindingoutexpedientsforremovingdifficultieswhichneveroccur.Henaturallyloses,therefore,thehabitofsuchexertion,andgenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome.Thetorporofhismindrendershimnotonlyincapableofrelishingorbearingapartinanyrationalconversation,butofconceivinganygenerous,noble,ortendersentiment,andconsequentlyofforminganyjustjudgementconcerningmanyevenoftheordinarydutiesofprivatelife...Butineveryimprovedandcivilisedsociety,thisisthestateintowhichthelabouringpoor,thatis,thegreatbodyofthepeople,mustnecessarilyfallunlessthegovernmenttakessomepainstopreventit.",AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations(1776),AdamSmith ^Rothbard,Murray."TheCelebratedAdamSmith".AnAustrianPerspectiveontheHistoryofEconomicThought.MisesInstitute.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12June2012.Retrieved5May2012. ^Tocqueville,Alexisde(1841).DemocracyinAmerica:VolumeI.NewYork,NY:J. &H. G.Langley.p. 460. ^Hill,Lisa(2004)."AdamSmith,AdamFergusonandtheDivisionofLabor"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on28July2013.Retrieved1July2012.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^O'Rourke,P.J.(2008).OntheWealthofNations.London:AtlanticBooks.ISBN 9781843543893. ^"AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations,byAdamSmith".www.gutenberg.org.Retrieved22April2020. ^Rosenberg,Nathan."Babbage:pioneereconomistbyNathanRosenberg".Archivedfromtheoriginalon4March2016.Retrieved28March2014. ^FundamentalPrinciplesoftheMetaphysicofMoralsbyImmanuelKant-FreeEbook.ProjectGutenberg.Retrieved25April2019. ^Marx,Karl.[1844]1963."EconomicandPhilosophicalManuscriptsof1844."InKarlMarxEarlyWritings,editedbyT.B.Bottomore.London:C.A.WattsandCo.§FirstManuscript,p. 72. ^Marx,Karl.1849."WageLabor&Capital." ^Marx,Karl.[1867]1977.Capital:ACritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,Volume1.NewYork:VintageBooks.pp.781–94. ^Rattansi,Ali.1982.MarxandtheDivisionofLabor.Macmillan. ^abKhurana,A.(2009).Scientificmanagement :amanagementideatoreachamassaudience.NewDelhi:GlobalIndiaPub.ISBN 978-93-80228-01-3.OCLC 495418951. ^Alpert,Harry(1959)."EmileDurkheim:APerspectiveandAppreciation".AmericanSociologicalReview.24(4):462–65.doi:10.2307/2089532.JSTOR 2089532.Afoundingfatherofsociology,ÉmileDurkheim,bestknownforhis1893seminalwork,DeLaDivisionDuTravailSocial[TheDivisionofLaborinSociety],"dedicatedhimselftotheestablishmentofsociologyasalegitimateandrespectedscienceandasaninstrumentofrationalsocialaction." ^Smith,Adam.TheWealthofNations.Baltimore:PenguinBooks,1970. ^abcdJones,Robert.1986.EmileDurkheim:AnIntroductiontoFourMajorWorks.BeverlyHills,CA:SagePublications.Print. ^abDurkheim,Emile.[1893]1997.TheDivisionofLaborinSociety.NewYork:TheFreePress.Print. ^Anderson,MargaretL.andHowardF.Taylor.2008.Sociology:UnderstandingaDiverseSociety.Belmont,CA:ThomsonWadsworth.Print. ^Moody,James.n.d.Sociology138:TheoryandSociety.DukeUniversity,DepartmentofSociology.Web.Retrieved16November2012. ^abMerton,RobertK(1994)."Durkheim'sDivisionofLaborinSociety".SociologicalForum.9(1):17–25.doi:10.1007/bf01507702.S2CID 144951894. ^Alpert,Harry(1959)."EmileDurkheim:APerspectiveandAppreciation".AmericanSociologicalReview.24(4):462–65.doi:10.2307/2089532.JSTOR 2089532. ^Mises,Ludwig(1949).HumanAction:ATreatiseonEconomics.p. 164. ^Hayek,FriedrichA.1945."TheUseofKnowledgeinSociety."AmericanEconomicReview35(4):519–30. ^abCope,Zak(2015).Dividedworld,dividedclass :globalpoliticaleconomyandthestratificationoflabourundercapitalism.ISBN 978-1-894946-68-1.OCLC 905638389. ^abAmin,Samir(1976).Unequaldevelopment :anessayonthesocialformationsofperipheralcaptialism[sic].MonthlyReviewPress.OCLC 1151842795. ^ab"ILOreleasesGlobalEmploymentTrends2007".BANGKOK:ILONews.25January2007.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6October2008. ^Smith,Adam(March2003).TheWealthofNations.NewYork,NY,USA:BantamDell.p. 9-27.ISBN 978-0-553-58597-1. ^abcMcAlister-Kizzier,Donna.2007."DivisionofLabor."EncyclopediaofBusinessandFinance(2nded.).–viaEncyclopedia.com.1December2014 ^Parkin,Frank(1982)."MarxismandClassTheory:ABourgeoisCritique".Reis(20):185–187.doi:10.2307/40182929.ISSN 0210-5233.JSTOR 40182929. ^Magda,Egoumenides(2014).Philosophicalanarchismandpoliticalobligation.BloomsburyAcademic.ISBN 978-1-4411-9357-5.OCLC 900469099. ^Lenin,VladimirIlʹich(2010).Imperialism:thehigheststageofcapitalism:apopularoutline.Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-119256-7.OCLC 835797169. ^Houthakker,H.S.(1956)."EconomicsandBiology:SpecializationandSpeciation".Kyklos.9(2):181–189.doi:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1956.tb02717.x. ^Parker,SharonK.;Wall,TobyD.;Cordery,JohnL.(2001)."Futureworkdesignresearchandpractice:Towardsanelaboratedmodelofworkdesign"(PDF).JournalofOccupationalandOrganizationalPsychology.74(4):413–440.doi:10.1348/096317901167460.S2CID 53985589.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on6March2019. ^Wadeson,Nigel.2013."TheDivisionofLabourunderUncertainty."JournalofInstitutionalandTheoreticalEconomics169(2):253–74.doi:10.1628/093245613X13620416111326.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27April2019. ^Barrera,CatherineGrace.2014."Skill,JobDesign,andtheLaborMarketunderUncertainty"(Doctoraldissertation).HarvardUniversity.HarvardLibraryID: 12274210. ^Rummel,JeffreyL.;Walter,Zhiping;Dewan,Rajiv;Seidman,Abraham(2005)."Activityconsolidationtoimproveresponsiveness".EuropeanJournalofOperationalResearch.161(3):683–703.doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2003.07.015. ^"eclectic.ss.uci.edu"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on17May2006.Retrieved13August2006. ^Kelly,E.L.;Goldberg,L.R.(1959)."Correlatesoflaterperformanceandspecializationinpsychology:Afollow-upstudyofthetraineesassessedintheVASelectionResearchProject".PsychologicalMonographs:GeneralandApplied.73(12):1–32.doi:10.1037/h0093748. ^Adeyoyin,S.O.;Agbeze-Unazi,F.;Oyewunmi,O.O.;Adegun,A.I.;Ayodele,R.O.(2015)."EffectsofJobSpecializationandDepartmentalizationonJobSatisfactionamongtheStaffofaNigerianUniversityLibrary".LibraryPhilosophyandPractice:1–20. Furtherreading[edit] Becker,GaryS.1991."DivisionofLaborinHouseholdsandFamilies."Ch.2inATreatiseontheFamily.HarvardUniversityPress,ISBN 0-674-90698-5. ——1985."HumanCapital,Effort,andtheSexualDivisionofLabor."JournalofLaborEconomics3(1.2):S33–S58.JSTOR 2534997 Braverman,Harry.1974.LaborandMonopolyCapital:TheDegradationofWorkintheTwentiethCentury.MonthlyReviewPress. Coontz,Stephanie,andPetaHenderson.Women'sWork,Men'sProperty:TheOriginsofGenderandClass. Cowen,Tyler(2008)."DivisionofLabor".InHamowy,Ronald(ed.).TheEncyclopediaofLibertarianism.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGE;CatoInstitute.pp. 125–26.doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n79.ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4.LCCN 2008009151.OCLC 750831024. Durkheim,Émile.1893.TheDivisionofLabourinSociety. Emerson,RalphWaldo."TheAmericanScholar." Filmer,Deon."EstimatingtheWorldatWork"(abackgroundreport). Florida,Richard.2002.TheRiseoftheCreativeClass. ——TheFlightoftheCreativeClass. Froebel,F.,J.Heinrichs,andO.Krey.TheNewInternationalDivisionofLabour.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress. Gintis,Herbert,SamuelBowles,RobertT.Boyd,andErnstFeghr.MoralSentimentsandMaterialInterests:TheFoundationsofCooperationinEconomicLife. Goodin,RobertE.,JamesMahmudRice,AnttiParpo,andLinaEriksson.2008."HouseholdRegimesMatter."Pp. 197–257inDiscretionaryTime:ANewMeasureofFreedom.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 9780521709514.CambridgeID:9780521709514. Gorz,André.TheDivisionofLabour:TheLabourProcessandClassStruggleinModernCapitalism. Groenewegen,Peter.1987."divisionoflabour."Pp. 901–07inTheNewPalgrave:ADictionaryofEconomics1. Heartfield,James.2001."TheEconomyofTime."CulturalTrends43/44:155–59 Ollman,Bertell.SexualandSocialRevolution. Rattansi,Ali.MarxandtheDivisionofLabour. Reisman,George.[1990]1998.Capitalism:ATreatiseonEconomics.LagunaHills,CA:TJSBooks.ISBN 978-1-931089-25-8. Solow,RobertM.,andJean-PhilippeTouffut,eds.2010.[permanentdeadlink]TheShapeoftheDivisionofLabour:Nations,IndustriesandHouseholds[deadlink].Cheltenham,UK:EdwardElgar. Contributors:BinaAgarwal,MartinBaily,Jean-LouisBeffa,RichardN.Cooper,JanFagerberg,ElhananHelpman,ShellyLundberg,ValentinaMeliciani,andPeterNunnenkamp. Rothbard,Murray.19March2018."Freedom,Inequality,PrimitivismandtheDivisionofLabor."MisesInstitute.Retrieved2July2020. vonMises,Ludwig."HumanSociety:TheDivisionofLabor."Pp. 157–58inHumanAction:ATreatiseonEconomics. ——"HumanSociety:TheRicardianLawofAssociation."Pp. 158–60inHumanAction:ATreatiseonEconomics. Stigler,GeorgeJ.1951."TheDivisionofLaborisLimitedbytheExtentoftheMarket."JournalofPoliticalEconomy59(3):185–93.JSTOR 1826433 WorldDevelopmentReport1995.Washington,DC:WorldBank.1996. Externallinks[edit] Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Divisionoflabour SummaryofSmith'sexampleofpin-making Conference:"TheNewInternationalDivisionofLabour".Speakers:BinaAgarwal,MartinBaily,Jean-LouisBeffa,RichardN.Cooper,JanFagerberg,ElhananHelpman,ShellyLundberg,ValentinaMeliciani,PeterNunnenkamp.Recordedin2009. 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