Carnival - Wikipedia

Elsewhere, Carnaval (sometimes referred to as Carnival) often occurs in September. The Fiesta de Carnaval is often the most popular celebration, usually held ... Carnival FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch MainlyCatholicfestiveseasonthatoccursbeforetheliturgicalseasonofLent ThisarticleisaboutthecelebrationofCarnivalinmanycultures.Forthetravelingentertainment,seeTravelingcarnival.Forthecruiseline,seeCarnivalCruiseLine.Forotheruses,seeCarnival(disambiguation). Ithasbeensuggestedthatthisarticleshouldbesplitintomultiplearticles.(discuss)(June2021) CarnivalinRomecirca1650 Rio'scarnivalisthelargestintheworldaccordingtoGuinnessWorldRecords.[1] CarnivalisaCatholicfestiveseasonthatoccursbeforetheliturgicalseasonofLent.[2]ThemaineventstypicallyoccurduringFebruaryorearlyMarch,duringtheperiodhistoricallyknownasShrovetide(orPre-Lent).Carnivaltypicallyinvolvespubliccelebrations,includingeventssuchasparades,publicstreetpartiesandotherentertainments,combiningsomeelementsofacircus.Elaboratecostumesandmasksallowpeopletosetasidetheireverydayindividualityandexperienceaheightenedsenseofsocialunity.[3]Participantsoftenindulgeinexcessiveconsumptionofalcohol,[4]meat,andotherfoodsthatwillbeforgoneduringupcomingLent.Traditionally,butter,milk,andotheranimalproductswerenotconsumed"excessively",rather,theirstockwasfullyconsumedastoreducewaste.ThisfestivalisknownforbeingatimeofgreatindulgencebeforeLent(whichisatimestressingtheopposite),withdrinking,overeating,andvariousotheractivitiesofindulgencebeingperformed.Forexample,Pancakes,donuts,andotherdessertsarepreparedandeatenforafinaltime.DuringLent,animalproductsareeatenless,andindividualshavetheabilitytomakeaLentensacrifice,thusgivingupacertainobjectoractivityofdesire. OthercommonfeaturesofCarnivalincludemockbattlessuchasfoodfights;expressionsofsocialsatire;mockeryofauthorities;costumesofthegrotesquebodythatdisplayexaggeratedfeaturessuchaslargenoses,bellies,mouths,phalli,orelementsofanimalbodies;abusivelanguageanddegradingacts;depictionsofdiseaseandgleefuldeath;andageneralreversalofeverydayrulesandnorms.[3][5]TheItaliantraditionofwearingmasksdatesbacktotheVeniceCarnivalinthe15thcentury,andhasbeenaninspirationinGreektheaterandCommediadell'arteforcenturies.[6][7] ThetermCarnivalistraditionallyusedinareaswithalargeCatholicpresence,aswellasinGreece.InhistoricallyEvangelicalLutherancountries,thecelebrationisknownasFastelavn,[8][9]andinareaswithahighconcentrationofAnglicans(ChurchofEngland/USEpiscopalChurch),Methodists,andotherProtestants,pre-Lentencelebrations,alongwithpenitentialobservances,occuronShroveTuesdayorMardiGras.[10]InSlavicEasternOrthodoxnations,MaslenitsaiscelebratedduringthelastweekbeforeGreatLent.InGerman-speakingEuropeandtheNetherlands,theCarnivalseasontraditionallyopenson11/11(oftenat11:11 a.m.).ThisdatesbacktocelebrationsbeforetheAdventseasonorwithharvestcelebrationsofSt.Martin'sDay. Contents 1Etymology 2History 2.1Development 3Theories 4Geographicdistribution 4.1Africa 4.1.1CapeVerdeIslands 4.1.2Namibia 4.1.3Seychelles 4.1.4Zimbabwe 4.2Americas 4.2.1Antigua 4.2.2Argentina 4.2.3Aruba 4.2.4Bahamas 4.2.5Barbados 4.2.6Belize 4.2.7Bolivia 4.2.8Brazil 4.2.8.1RiodeJaneiro 4.2.8.2Recife,Pernambuco 4.2.8.3Salvador,Bahia 4.2.9Canada 4.2.10Caribbean 4.2.11Colombia 4.2.12Dominica 4.2.13DominicanRepublic 4.2.14Ecuador 4.2.15FrenchGuiana 4.2.16Guatemala 4.2.17Haiti 4.2.18Honduras 4.2.19Mexico 4.2.20Nicaragua 4.2.21Panama 4.2.22Peru 4.2.22.1Cajamarca 4.2.22.2Crime 4.2.23PuertoRico 4.2.24TrinidadandTobago 4.2.25UnitedStates 4.2.26Uruguay 4.2.27Venezuela 4.3Asia 4.3.1India 4.3.2Indonesia 4.3.3Israel 4.4Europe 4.4.1Albania 4.4.2Belgium 4.4.3BosniaandHerzegovina 4.4.4Croatia 4.4.5Cyprus 4.4.6CzechRepublic 4.4.7DenmarkandNorway 4.4.8England 4.4.9Finland 4.4.10France 4.4.11Germany,Switzerland,andAustria 4.4.11.1Germany 4.4.11.2"RhenishCarnival"(RheinischerKarneval,Fasnacht,Fasnet,Fastabend,Fastelovend,Fasteleer,Fasching) 4.4.11.3"Swabian-Alemannic"Carnival(SchwäbischeFastnacht) 4.4.11.4SwissFasnacht 4.4.12Greece 4.4.13Hungary 4.4.14Italy 4.4.15Lithuania 4.4.16Luxembourg 4.4.17Malta 4.4.18Netherlands 4.4.19NorthMacedonia 4.4.20Poland 4.4.21Portugal 4.4.21.1Azores 4.4.21.2Madeira 4.4.21.3Ovar 4.4.21.4Otherregions 4.4.22Russia 4.4.23Slovakia 4.4.24Slovenia 4.4.25Spain 4.4.25.1Andalusia 4.4.25.2CanaryIslands 4.4.25.3Catalonia 4.4.25.4ValencianCommunity 4.4.26Turkey 5Seealso 6Notes 7References Etymology[edit] TheLatin-derivednameoftheholidayissometimesalsospelledCarnaval,typicallyinareaswhereDutch,French,Spanish,andPortuguesearespoken,orCarnevaleinItalian-speakingcontexts.Alternativenamesareusedforregionalandlocalcelebrations.[11] ThewordissaidtocomefromtheLateLatinexpressioncarnelevare,whichmeans"removemeat";afolketymologyderivesitfromcarnevale,"farewelltomeat".Ineithercase,thissignifiestheapproachingfast.[12]Thewordcarnemayalsobetranslatedasflesh,producing"afarewelltotheflesh",aphraseembracedbycertaincarnivalcelebrantstoemboldenthefestival'scarefreespirit.[12]TheetymologyofthewordCarnivalthuspointstoaChristianoriginofthecelebratoryperiod.[13] Otherscholarsarguethattheoriginofthewordisacommonmeat-basedcountryfeast(inLatincarnualia)[14]orthefestivaloftheNavigiumIsidis("shipofIsis"),wheretheimageofIsiswascarriedtotheseashoretoblessthestartofsailingseason.[15]Thefestivalconsistedofaparadeofmasksfollowinganadornedwoodenboat,calledinLatincarrusnavalis,[14]possiblythesourceofboththenameandtheparadefloats. History[edit] ThetraditionalcarnivalofAcireale,Sicily ThewordCarnivalisofChristianorigin,[13]andintheMiddleAges,itreferredtoaperiodfollowingEpiphanyseasonthatreacheditsclimaxbeforemidnightonShroveTuesday.[16]BritishhistorianJohnBossy,inwritingontheoriginofthepracticesduringCarnival,statesthat"Thesewere,despitesomeappearances,Christianincharacter,andtheyweremedievalinorigin:althoughithasbeenwidelysupposedthattheycontinuedsomekindofpre-Christiancult,thereisinfactnoevidencethattheyexistedmuchbefore1200."[17]BecauseLentwasaperiodoffasting,"CarnivalthereforerepresentedalastperiodoffeastingandcelebrationbeforethespiritualrigorsofLent."[16]MeatwasplentifulduringthispartoftheChristiancalendaranditwasconsumedduringCarnivalaspeopleabstainedfrommeatconsumptionduringthefollowingliturgicalseason,Lent.[16]InthelastfewdaysofCarnival,knownasShrovetide,peopleconfessed(shrived)theirsinsinpreparationforLentaswell.In1605,aShrovetideplayspokeofChristianswhopaintedtheirfacestocelebratetheseason:[18] What,aretheremasques?Hearyoume,Jessica: Lockupmydoors,andwhenyouhearthedrum Andthevilesquealingofthewry-nck'dfife, Clambernotyouupothecasementsthen, Northrustyourheadintothepublicstreet TogazeonChristianfoolswithvarnish'dfaces.[18] Fromananthropologicalpointofview,carnivalisareversalritual,inwhichsocialrolesarereversedandnormsaboutdesiredbehavioraresuspended.[19][20] Winterwasthoughtofasthereignofthewinterspirits;theseneededtobedrivenoutinorderforthesummertoreturn.Carnivalcanthusberegardedasariteofpassagefromdarknesstolight,fromwintertosummer:afertilitycelebration,thefirstspringfestivalofthenewyear.[21] Traditionally,aCarnivalfeastwasthelastopportunityforcommonpeopletoeatwell,astherewastypicallyafoodshortageattheendofthewinterasstoresranout.Untilspringproducewasavailable,peoplewerelimitedtotheminimumnecessarymealsduringthisperiod.Onwhatnowadaysiscalledvastenavond(thedaysbeforefasting),alltheremainingwinterstoresoflard,butter,andmeatwhichwereleftwouldbeeaten,forthesewouldotherwisesoonstarttorotanddecay.TheselectedlivestockhadalreadybeenslaughteredinNovemberandthemeatwouldnolongerbepreservable.Allthefoodthathadsurvivedthewinterhadtobeeatentoassurethateveryonewasfedenoughtosurviveuntilthecomingspringwouldprovidenewfoodsources.[22] SeveralGermanictribescelebratedthereturningofthedaylight.Thewinterwouldbedrivenout,tomakesurethatfertilitycouldreturninspring.[19]AcentralfigureofthisritualwaspossiblythefertilitygoddessNerthus.Also,therearesomeindicationsthattheeffigyofNerthus[23]orFreyrwasplacedonashipwithwheelsandaccompaniedbyaprocessionofpeopleinanimaldisguiseandmeninwomen'sclothes.[22][24][25]Aboardtheshipamarriagewouldbeconsummatedasafertilityritual.[26][27] TacituswroteinhisGermania:Germania9.6:Ceterumneccohibereparietibusdeosnequeinullamhumaniorisspeciemadsimulareexmagnitudinecaelestiumarbitrator–"TheGermans,however,donotconsideritconsistentwiththegrandeurofcelestialbeingstoconfinethegodswithinwalls,ortolikenthemtotheformofanyhumancountenance."Germania40:moxvehiculumetvestiset,sicrederevelis,numenipsumsecretolacuabluitur–"Afterwardsthecar,thevestments,and,ifyouliketobelieveit,thedivinityherself,arepurifiedinasecretlake."[28] Traditionally,thefeastalsowasatimetoindulgeinsexualdesires,whichweresupposedtobesuppressedduringthefollowingperiodfasting.[22][29]BeforeLentbegan,allrichfoodanddrinkwereconsumedinwhatbecameagiantcelebrationthatinvolvedthewholecommunity,andisthoughttobetheoriginofCarnival.[30] InmanyChristiansermonsandtexts,theexampleofavesselisusedtoexplainChristiandoctrine:"thenaveofthechurchofbaptism","theshipofMary",etc.Thewritingsshowthatprocessionswithship-likecartswereheldandlavishfeastswerecelebratedontheeveofLentorthegreetingofspringintheearlyMiddleAges.[22][26] TheLentenperiodoftheliturgicalcalendar,thesixweeksdirectlybeforeEaster,washistoricallymarkedbyfasting,study,andotherpiousorpenitentialpractices.DuringLent,nopartiesorcelebrationswereheld,andpeoplerefrainedfromeatingrichfoods,suchasmeat,dairy,fat,andsugar.Thefirstthreeclasseswereoftentotallyunavailableduringthisperiodbecauseoflatewintershortages.[31] WhileChristianfestivalssuchasCorpusChristiwereChurch-sanctionedcelebrations,CarnivalwasalsoamanifestationofEuropeanfolkculture.IntheChristiantradition,fastingistocommemoratethe40daysthatJesusfastedinthedesert,accordingtotheNewTestament,andalsotoreflectonChristianvalues.Itwasatimeforcatechumens(thoseconvertingtoChristianity)toprepareforbaptismatEaster.[citationneeded] CarnivalintheMiddleAgestooknotjustafewdays,butalmosttheentireperiodbetweenChristmasandthebeginningofLent.Inthosetwomonths,Christianpopulationsusedtheirseveralholidaysasanoutletfortheirdailyfrustrations.[32] Manysynodsandcouncilsattemptedtosetthings"right".CaesariusofArles(470–542)protestedaround500CEinhissermonsagainstthepaganpractices.Centurieslater,hisstatementswereadaptedasthebuildingblocksoftheIndiculussuperstitionumetpaganiarum("smallindexofsuperstitiousandpaganpractices"),whichwasdraftedbytheSynodofLeptinesin742.ItcondemnedtheSpurcalibusenfebruario.[22][26] PopeGregorytheGreat(590–604)decidedthatfastingwouldstartonAshWednesday.ThewholeCarnivaleventwassetbeforethefasting,tosetacleardivisionbetweencelebrationsandpenitence.[33]HealsodispatchedmissionariestosanctifyanyexcessesinpopularCarnivalcustoms.[34]ItwasalsothecustomduringCarnivalthattherulingclasswouldbeplayfullymockedusingmasksanddisguises.[22][26] Intheyear743,thesynodinLeptines(locatednearBincheinBelgium)spokeoutfuriouslyagainsttheexcessesinthemonthofFebruary.[26]Alsofromthesameperioddatesthephrase:"WhoeverinFebruarybyavarietyoflesshonorableactstriestodriveoutwinterisnotaChristian,butapagan."Confessionbooksfromaround800containmoreinformationabouthowpeoplewoulddressasananimaloroldwomanduringthefestivitiesinJanuaryandFebruary,eventhoughthiswasasinwithnosmallpenance.[22][26][35]AlsoinSpainintheseventhcentury,SanIsidorodeSevillacomplainedinhiswritingsaboutpeoplecomingoutintothestreetsdisguised,inmanycases,astheoppositegender.[36] Development[edit] CarnivalonIceattheKipdorppoortMoatsinAntwerp,c.1620 CarnivalinVenice,byGiovanniDomenicoTiepolo,1750 AtypicalmaskwornattheVeniceCarnival,whichportraysthesatiricalandexaggeratedappearancesoftenused. IntheMiddleAges,"CarnivalandLentwerebothnecessary,inevitableepisodesintheeternalcycleoftheChurchyear."[37] WhileforminganintegralpartoftheChristiancalendar,particularlyinCatholicregions,manyCarnivaltraditionsresemblethoseantedatingChristianity.[38] WhilemedievalpageantsandfestivalssuchasCorpusChristiwerechurch-sanctioned,Carnivalwasalsoamanifestationofmedievalfolkculture.ManylocalCarnivalcustomsareclaimedtoderivefromlocalpre-Christianrituals,suchaselaborateritesinvolvingmaskedfiguresintheSwabian-AlemannicFastnacht.However,evidenceisinsufficienttoestablishadirectoriginfromSaturnaliaorotherancientfestivals.NocompleteaccountsofSaturnaliasurvive,andthesharedfeaturesoffeasting,rolereversals,temporarysocialequality,masks,andpermittedrule-breakingdonotnecessarilyconstituteacoherentfestivalorlinkthesefestivals.[citationneeded]Thesesimilaritiesmayrepresentareservoirofculturalresourcesthatcanembodymultiplemeaningsandfunctions.Forexample,EasterbeginswiththeresurrectionofJesus,followedbyaliminalperiod,andendswithrebirth.CarnivalreversesthisasKingCarnivalcomestolife,andaliminalperiodfollowsbeforehisdeath.Bothfeastsarecalculatedbythelunarcalendar.BothJesusandKingCarnivalmaybeseenasexpiatoryfigureswhomakeagifttothepeoplewiththeirdeaths.InthecaseofJesus,thegiftiseternallifeinheaven,andinthecaseofKingCarnival,theacknowledgementthatdeathisanecessarypartofthecycleoflife.[39]BesidesChristiananti-Judaism,thecommonalitiesbetweenchurchandCarnivalritualsandimagerysuggestacommonroot.Christ'spassionisitselfgrotesque:sinceearlyChristianity,Christisfiguredasthevictimofsummaryjudgment,andistorturedandexecutedbyRomansbeforeaJewishmob("Hisbloodisonusandonourchildren!"Matthew27:24–25).HolyWeekprocessionsinSpainincludecrowdswhovociferouslyinsultthefigureofJesus.Irreverence,parody,degradation,andlaughteratatragicomiceffigyofGodcanbeseenasintensificationsofthesacredorder.[40]In1466,theCatholicChurchunderPopePaulIIrevivedcustomsoftheSaturnaliacarnival:JewswereforcedtoracenakedthroughthestreetsofthecityofRome."Beforetheyweretorun,theJewswererichlyfed,soastomaketheracemoredifficultforthemandatthesametimemoreamusingforspectators.Theyran...amidRome'stauntingshrieksandpealsoflaughter,whiletheHolyFatherstooduponarichlyornamentedbalconyandlaughedheartily",aneyewitnessreports.[41]: 74  Someofthebest-knowntraditions,includingcarnalparadesandmasqueradeballs,werefirstrecordedinmedievalItaly.TheCarnivalofVenicewas,foralongtime,themostfamouscarnival(althoughNapoleonabolisheditin1797andonlyin1979wasthetraditionrestored).FromItaly,CarnivaltraditionsspreadtoSpain,Portugal,andFrance,andfromFrancetoNewFranceinNorthAmerica.FromSpainandPortugal,itspreadwithcolonizationtotheCaribbeanandLatinAmerica.Intheearly19thcenturyintheGermanRhinelandandSouthernNetherlands,theweakenedmedievaltraditionalsorevived.Continuouslyinthe18thand19thcenturiesCE,aspartoftheannualSaturnaliaabuseofthecarnivalinRome,rabbisoftheghettowereforcedtomarchthroughthecitystreetswearingfoolishguise,jeereduponandpeltedbyavarietyofmissilesfromthecrowd.ApetitionoftheJewishcommunityofRomesentin1836toPopeGregoryXVItostoptheannualanti-semiticSaturnaliaabusegotanegation:"Itisnotopportunetomakeanyinnovation."[41]: 33, 74–75  IntheRhinelandin1823,thefirstmodernCarnivalparadetookplaceinCologne.[42]Carnaval(FaschingorFastnachtinGermany)mixedpagantraditionswithChristiantraditions.Pre-Lentencelebrationsfeaturedparades,costumesandmaskstoendureLent'swithdrawalfromworldlypleasures.[citationneeded] RiderlessRacersatRomebyThéodoreGéricault.Fromthemid-15thcenturyuntil1882,springcarnivalinRomeclosedwithahorserace.Fifteento20riderlesshorses,originallyimportedfromtheBarbaryCoastofNorthAfrica,ranthelengthoftheViadelCorso,along,straightcitystreet,inabout2½minutes. Otherareasdevelopedtheirowntraditions.IntheUnitedKingdom,WestIndianimmigrantsbroughtwiththemthetraditionsofCaribbeanCarnival;however,theCarnivalsnowcelebratedatNottingHill,Leeds,Yorkshire,andotherplacesbecamedivorcedfromtheirreligiousoriginandbecameseculareventsthattakeplaceinthesummermonths.[citationneeded] MirceaEliade,historianofreligions,givesusaclearexplanationaboutCarnivalanditsmeaning.Hewrites:"Anynewyearisarevivaloftimeatitsbeginning,arepetitionofthecosmogony.Ritualfightsbetweentwogroupsofextras,thepresenceofthedead,Saturnaliaandorgies,areallelementswhichindicatethatattheendoftheyearandintheexpectationofthenewyearthemythicalmomentsofthepassageofchaostothecosmogonyarerepeated".[43]Eliadealsowrites:"Thenthedeadwillcomeback,becauseallbarriersbetweenthedeadandthelivingarebroken(istheprimordialchaosnotrevived?),andwillcomebacksince–atthisparadoxicalmoment–timewillbeinterrupted,sothatthedeadmaybeagaincontemporariesoftheliving."Eliadestressesthatpeoplehave"adeepneedtoregeneratethemselvesperiodicallybyabolishingtheelapsedtimeandmakingtopicalthecosmogony". Asregardsmasks(monsters,animals,demons),theyhaveanapotropaicmeaning. Theories[edit] InterpretationsofCarnivalpresentitasasocialinstitutionthatdegradesor"uncrowns"thehigherfunctionsofthought,speech,andthesoulbytranslatingthemintothegrotesquebody,whichservestorenewsocietyandtheworld,[3]asareleaseforimpulsesthatthreatenthesocialorderthatultimatelyreinforcessocialnorms,[44]asasocialtransformation,[45]orasatoolfordifferentgroupstofocusattentiononconflictsandincongruitiesbyembodyingthemin"senseless"acts.[46] Furthermore,someculturesuseCarnivalasamethodofempoweringthemselvesinspiteofsocialconflicts.Forexample,whentheCaribbeanCarnivalwasestablishedasaresultofFrenchsettlers,eventheslaveshadtheirversionofthemasquerade,wheretheywouldreverserolestomockthoseofhighersocialstatus.[47]Alongwithempoweringindividualsforaperiodoftime,despitetheirtypicalstatus,Carnivalbringscommunitiestogether.Inadaywhereallaremeanttoperforma"mask"thatdiffersfromtheirtypicalidentity,allmembersofasocietyareabletoconnectthroughtheirtheatricalityandsatire.[48] Geographicdistribution[edit] Africa[edit] CapeVerdeIslands[edit] CarnivalwasintroducedbyPortuguesesettlers.Itiscelebratedoneachofthearchipelago'snineinhabitedislands.InMindelo,SãoVicente,groupschallengeeachotherforayearlyprize.IthasimportedvariousBrazilianCarnivaltraditions.ThecelebrationinSãoNicolauismoretraditional,whereestablishedgroupsparadethroughtheRibeiraBrava,gatheringinthetownsquare,althoughithasadopteddrums,floatsandcostumesfromBrazil.InSãoNicolau,threegroups,CopaCabana,EstrelaAzul,andBrilhoDaZona,constructapaintedfloatusingfire,newspaperforthemold,andironandsteelforstructure.CarnivalSãoNicolauiscelebratedoverthreedays:dawnSaturday,Sundayafternoon,andTuesday.[49]Thecelebrationsarecapturedintheaward-winningfeaturedocumentaryTchindas,nominatedatthe12thAfricaMovieAcademyAwards. Namibia[edit] CarnivalwasintroducedbyGermansettlers.Thecelebrationisbasedonthe"Rheinische"Carnivaltradition. Seychelles[edit] TheSeychellescarnivalbeganin2011.ItisheldinthecapitalcityofVictoriaandtakesplaceoverthreedays.OnDay1,thegrandopeningisheldinthecitycenterneartheclocktower.Theseconddayisparadeday.OnDay3,theclosingceremonyisheld,andalotterywinnerisannounced.[50][51] Zimbabwe[edit] TheHarareCarnivalisheldlateinMay.Eventsincludefashionandmusicshows.Theclimaxisastreetpartyfeaturingcostumesandmusic.[52] Americas[edit] Antigua[edit] Mainarticle:AntiguaCarnival TheAntiguanCarnivalisheldfromtheendofJulytothefirstTuesdayinAugust.Themostimportantdayisthatofthej'ouvert(orjuvé),inwhichbrassandsteeldrumbandsperform.Barbuda'sCarnival,heldinJune,isknownas"Caribana".TheAntiguanandBarbudanCarnivalsreplacedtheOldTimeChristmasFestivalin1957,withhopesofinspiringtourism.[53] Argentina[edit] CarnivalinArgentinabyschoolchildren InArgentina,themostrepresentativeCarnivalperformedistheso-calledMurga,althoughotherfamousCarnivals,morelikeBrazil's,areheldinArgentineMesopotamiaandtheNorth-East.GualeguaychúintheeastofEntreRíosProvinceisthemostimportantCarnivalcityandhasoneofthelargestparades.ItadoptsamusicalbackgroundsimilartoBrazilianorUruguayanCarnival.CorrientesisanothercitywithaCarnivaltradition.Chamaméisapopularmusicalstyle.Inallmajorcitiesandmanytownsthroughoutthecountry,Carnivaliscelebrated.[citationneeded] AsCarnivalcoincideswithsummerintheSouthernHemisphere,inmanypartsofArgentinachildrenplaywithwater.The19thcenturytraditionoffillingemptyeggshellswithwaterhasevolvedintowatergamesthatincludethethrowingofwaterballoons.[citationneeded] Aruba[edit] CarnivalinArubameansweeksofeventsthatbringcolourfullydecoratedfloats,contagiouslythrobbingmusic,luxuriouslycostumedgroupsofcelebrantsofallages,KingandQueenelections,electrifyingjump-upsandtorchlightparades,theJouvertmorning:theChildren'sParades,andfinallytheGrandParade.Aruba'sbiggestcelebrationisamonth-longaffairconsistingoffestive"jump-ups"(streetparades),spectacularparades,andcreativecontests.Musicandflamboyantcostumesplayacentralrole,fromtheQueenelectionstotheGrandParade.Streetparadescontinueinvariousdistrictsthroughoutthemonth,withbrassband,steeldrumandroadmarchtunes.OntheeveningbeforeLent,CarnivalendswiththesymbolicburningofKingMomo.[54] Bahamas[edit] JunkanooistheprincipalstreetparadeintheBahamas,ithasbeenpracticedintheBahamasbeforeandafterthe1834emancipationofslaveryintheBritishEmpire. TheBahamasannouncedthefirstBahamasJunkanooCarnivaltocommenceinMay2015.[55]CarnivalintheBahamasrivalsvariouscarnivalsthroughouttheCaribbeaninthatitisauniqueblendbetweenthereveredJunkanooandtraditionalCarnival.ThisfairlynewfestivalhasbeenreferredtoastheultimatecelebrationofeverythingBahamian. Barbados[edit] Mainarticle:Cropover "CropOver"(formerlycalled"HarvestHome")isatraditionalharvestfestivalcelebratedinBarbados.Itsearlybeginningswereonthesugarcaneplantationsduringthecolonialperiod.CropOverbeganin1688,andfeaturedsinging,dancing,andaccompanimentbyshak-shak,banjo,triangle,fiddle,guitar,bottlesfilledwithwater,andbones.Othertraditionsincludedclimbingagreasedpole,feasting,anddrinkingcompetitions.Originallysignalingtheendoftheyearlycaneharvest,itevolvedintoanationalfestival.Inthelate20thcentury,CropOverbegantocloselymirrortheTrinidadCarnival.BeginninginJune,CropOverrunsuntilthefirstMondayinAugustwhenitculminatesinthefinale,theGrandKadooment.[citationneeded] CropOvertimeformanyislandersisonebigparty.Craftmarkets,foodtents/stalls,streetparties,andcavalcadesfilleveryweek.[citationneeded] Amajorfeatureisthecalypsocompetition.Calypsomusic,originatinginTrinidad,usessyncopatedrhythmandtopicallyrics.Itoffersamediuminwhichtosatiriselocalpolitics,amidstthegeneralbacchanal.Calypsotents,alsooriginatinginTrinidad,featurecadresofmusicianswhoperformbitingsocialcommentaries,politicalexposésorrousingexhortationsto"wukdahwaistline"and"rolldatbumper".ThegroupscompetefortheCalypsoMonarchAward,whiletheairisredolentwiththesmellsofBajancookingduringtheBridgetownMarketStreetFair.TheCohobblopotFestivalblendsdance,drama,andmusicwiththecrowningoftheKingandQueenofcostumebands.Everyeveningthe"Pic-o-de-Crop"ShowisperformedaftertheKingofCalypsoisfinallycrowned.TheclimaxofthefestivalisKadoomentDay,celebratedwithanationalholiday,whencostumebandsfillthestreetswithpulsatingBarbadianrhythmsandfireworks.[citationneeded] Belize[edit] Mainarticle:CarnivalinBelize SanPedroisoneofBelize'sfewcitiestoobserveCarnavalbeforeLent.Elsewhere,Carnaval(sometimesreferredtoasCarnival)oftenoccursinSeptember.TheFiestadeCarnavalisoftenthemostpopularcelebration,usuallyheldoverthreedayspriortoAshWednesday,butthefestivitiesoftenextendtothefullweek.[56]Thisfestival"alwaysincludesmusic,dancing,costumesandparades".[57] Comparsasareheldthroughouttheweek,consistingoflargegroups"ofdancersdancingandtravelingonthestreets,followedbyaCarrosa(carriage)wherethemusiciansplay.TheComparsaisadevelopmentofAfricanprocessionswheregroupsofdevoteesfollowagivensaintordeityduringaparticularreligiouscelebration."OneofthemostpopularcomparsasofFiestadeCarnavalisthemalegroupcomparsa,usuallycomposedofnotablemenfromthecommunitywhodressupinoutlandishcostumesorcross-dressanddancetocompeteformoneyandprizes.[58]Otherpopularactivitiesincludebodypaintingandflourfighting.[59][60]"OnthelastdayofCarnivalpaintersfloodthestreettopainteachother.Thissimplymeansthatamixtureofwaterpaintandwaterorraweggsisusedtopaintpeopleonthestreets,thegoalbeingtopaintasmanypeopleasyoucan."[58] Streetfightsoftenoccurduringthefestivities–somelocalstreatthisfestivalasanopportunitytoexactrevengeontheirenemies.Vandalismiscommonand"businessesconstantlyhavetoprepareincoveringorrepaintingtheiradvertisementsduringCarnivalseasonbecauseofthemischiefperformed."[61]Thetraditioncontinuesdespitecriticswhoadvocatetheterminationofthesefestivities.[60] Bolivia[edit] Mainarticle:CarnavaldeOruro TheDiablada,danceprimeval,thetypicalandmaindanceofCarnavaldeOruro,aMasterpieceoftheOralandIntangibleHeritageofHumanitysince2001inBolivia(Image:FraternidadArtísticayCultural"LaDiablada") LaDiabladaCarnivaltakesplaceinOruroincentralBolivia.Itiscelebratedinhonoroftheminers'patronsaint,VírgendeSocavon(theVirginoftheTunnels).[citationneeded]Over50paradegroupsdance,sing,andplaymusicoverafivekilometre-longcourse.Participantsdressupasdemons,devils,angels,Incas,andSpanishconquistadors.Dancesincludecaporalesandtinkus.Theparaderunsfrommorninguntillateatnight,18hoursaday,forthreedaysbeforeAshWednesday.Itwasdeclaredthe2001"MasterpiecesofOralHeritageandIntangibleHeritageofHumanity"byUNESCO.[62]Throughoutthecountry,celebrationsareheldinvolvingtraditionalrhythmsandwaterparties.InSantaCruzdelaSierra,ontheeastsideofthecountry,tropicalweatherallowsaBrazilian-typeCarnival,withComparsasdancingtraditionalsongsinmatchinguniforms.[citationneeded] Brazil[edit] Mainarticle:BrazilianCarnival RecifeCarnival,inthecapitalcityoftheStateofPernambuco,Recife CarnivalcircuitofthecityofSalvador TheCarnivalinBrazilisamajorpartofBrazilianculture(Carnaval,inBrazilianPortuguese).ThefirsttrueCarnivalexpressionofthisBrazilianfestivity,officiallyrecognizedbyBrazilianhistorians,tookplaceinRiodeJaneiro,withthepréstitos,verysimilartoamusicalprocessions,in1641,whenJohnIVofPortugalwascrownedKingandpartieswerecelebratedinpublicstreets.[citationneeded] RiodeJaneiro[edit] Mainarticle:RioCarnival ThestreetcarnivalofRiodeJaneiroisdesignatedbyGuinnessWorldRecordsasthelargestcarnivalintheworld,withapproximatelytwomillionpeopleeachday.[63] Sambaschoolsarelarge,socialentitieswiththousandsofmembersandathemefortheirsongandparadeeachyear.InRioCarnival,sambaschoolsparadeintheSambadrome(sambódromoinPortuguese).SomeofthemostfamousincludeGRESEstaçãoPrimeiradeMangueira,GRESPortela,GRESAcadêmicosdoSalgueiro,GRESImperatrizLeopoldinense,GRESBeija-FlordeNilópolis,GRESMocidadeIndependentedePadreMiguel,andrecently,UnidosdaTijucaandGRESUniãodaIlhadoGovernador.Localtouristspay$500–950,dependingonthecostume,tobuyasambacostumeanddanceintheparade.Blocosaresmallinformalgroupswithadefinitethemeintheirsamba,usuallysatirizingthepoliticalsituation.About30schoolsinRiogatherhundredsofthousandsofparticipants.Morethan440blocosoperateinRio.Bandasaresambamusicalbands,alsocalled"streetcarnivalbands",usuallyformedwithinasingleneighborhoodormusicalbackground.TheCarnivalindustrychainamassedin2012almostUS$1 billioninrevenues.[64] Recife,Pernambuco[edit] Recifeismarkedbytheparadeofthelargestcarnivalblockintheworld,theGalodaMadrugada.ThisparadehappensonthefirstSaturdayofCarnival(SaturdayofZéPereira),passesthroughthecenterofthecityofRecifeandhas,assymbol,agiantroosterthatispositionedintheDuarteCoelhoBridge.Inthisblock,thereisagreatvarietyofmusicalrhythms,butthemostpresentisFrevo(characteristicrhythmofbothRecifeandOlindathatwasdeclaredIntangibleHeritageofHumanitybyUnesco).[citationneeded] Salvador,Bahia[edit] Mainarticle:BahianCarnival SalvadorhaslargeCarnivalcelebrations,includingtheAxé,atypicalBahiamusic.Atruckwithgiantspeakersandaplatform,wheremusiciansplaysongsoflocalgenressuchasAxé,samba-reggae,andArrocha,drivesthroughtownwithacrowdfollowingwhiledancingandsinging.ItwasoriginallystagedbytwoSalvadormusicians,Dodo&Osmar,inthe1950s.AftertheSalvadorCarnival,PortoSegurocontinuesthecelebration.[citationneeded] Threecircuitsmakeupthefestival.CampoGrandeisthelongestandmosttraditional.Barra-Ondinaisthemostfamous,ontheseasideofBarraBeachandOndinaBeachandPelourinho.[65] InternationalsingerslikeDavidGuetta,will.i.am,Psy,andBobSinclarhaveperformedinSalvador.[66]IveteSangalo,ClaudiaLeitte,DanielaMercury,MargarethMenezes,ChicletecomBanana,andBandaEvaaresometraditionalattractions.Thepartyofficiallytakessixdays,butcancontinueformorethanthat.[67] Canada[edit] TorontoCaribbeanCarnival,[68]heldinTorontoonthefirstweekendofAugusttotakeadvantageofmorecomfortableweather,hasitsoriginsinCaribbeanCarnivaltraditions.Touristattendanceattheparadetypicallyexceedsonemillion.[69] TheQuebecWinterCarnivalisoneofthebiggestwinter-themedCarnivalsintheworld.[70]Itdependsonsnowfallandverycoldweather,tokeepsnowyskitrailsingoodconditionandicesculpturesfrozen.ThecarnivalisheldduringthelastdaysofJanuaryandfirstdaysofFebruary.[71] IntheOttawa-Gatineauregion,WinterludetakesplaceduringFebruary.[72] Caribbean[edit] CarnivalinRincon(Bonaire)(2018) Mainarticle:CarnivalintheCaribbean MostCaribbeanislandscelebrateCarnival.Thelargestandmostwell-knownisinTrinidadandTobago.Antigua,Aruba,Barbados,Bonaire,CaymanIslands,Cuba,Curaçao,Dominica,DominicanRepublic,Grenada,Guadeloupe,Guyana,Haiti,Jamaica,Martinique,PuertoRico,Saba,SintEustatius(Statia),SintMaarten,SaintLucia,SaintKitts,SaintThomas,U.S.VirginIslands,SaintVincent,andtheGrenadinesholdlengthycarnivalseasonsandlargecelebrations.[citationneeded] CarnivalisanimportantculturaleventintheDutchCaribbean.Festivitiesinclude"jump-up"paradeswithbeautifullycoloredcostumes,floats,andlivebands,aswellasbeautycontestsandothercompetitions.Celebrationsincludeamiddle-of-the-nightj'ouvert(juvé)paradethatendsatsunrisewiththeburningofastrawKingMomo,cleansingsinsandbadluck.OnStatia,heiscalledPrinceStupid.[citationneeded] CarnivalhasbeencelebratedinCubasincethe18thcentury.Participantsdoncostumesfromtheisland'sculturalandethnicvariety.AfterFidelCastro'sCommunistRevolution,Carnival'sreligiousovertonesweresuppressed.[citationneeded]Theeventsremained,albeitfrowneduponbythestate.[citationneeded]CarnivalcelebrationshavebeenindeclinethroughoutCubasincethen.[citationneeded] Colombia[edit] TheBlacksandWhites'CarnivalinPasto Mainarticle:CarnivalinColombia CarnivalwasintroducedbytheSpaniardsandincorporatedelementsfromEuropeancultures.IthasmanagedtoreinterprettraditionsthatbelongedtoColombia'sAfricanandAmerindiancultures.DocumentaryevidenceshowsthatCarnivalexistedinColombiainthe18thcenturyandhadalreadybeenacauseforconcernforcolonialauthorities,whocensoredthecelebrations,especiallyinthemainpoliticalcentressuchasCartagena,Bogotá,andPopayán.[citationneeded] TheCarnivalcontinueditsevolutioninsmall/unimportanttownsoutofviewoftherulers.TheresultwastheuninterruptedcelebrationofCarnivalfestivalsinBarranquilla(seeBarranquilla'sCarnival),nowrecognizedasoneoftheMasterpiecesoftheOralandIntangibleHeritageofHumanity.TheBarranquillaCarnivalincludesseveralparadesonFridayandSaturdaynightsbeginningon11Januaryandendingwithasix-daynon-stopfestival,beginningtheWednesdaypriortoAshWednesdayandendingTuesdaymidnight.OthercelebrationsoccurinvillagesalongthelowerMagdalenaRiverinnorthernColombia,andinPastoandNariño(seeBlacksandWhites'Carnival)inthesouthofthecountry.Intheearly20thcentury,attemptstointroduceCarnivalinBogotáwererejectedbythegovernment.TheBogotáCarnivalwasrenewedinthe21stcentury.[citationneeded] Dominica[edit] Mainarticle:Chantémas CarnivalinDominicaisheldinthecapitalcityofRoseau,andtakeselementsofCarnivalthatcanbeseenintheneighbouringFrenchislandsofMartiniqueandGuadeloupe,aswellasTrinidad.NotableeventsleadinguptoCarnivalincludetheOpeningofCarnivalcelebrations,theCalypsoMonarchmusiccompetition,theQueenofCarnivalBeautyPageant,andbouyonmusicbands.CelebrationslastfortheMondayandTuesdaybeforeAshWednesday.[citationneeded] DominicanRepublic[edit] Mainarticle:CarnivalintheDominicanRepublic TraditionalcojuelomaskoftheDominicancarnivalinLaVega,DominicanRepublic. DominicanCarnivaliscelebratedinmostcitiesandtownsinthemainstreetsduringFebruary.Amongitsmaincharacteristicsareitsflashycostumesandloudmusic.TheoneheldinLaVega,whichisoneofthebiggestinthecountry,andthenationalparadeinSantoDomingowerewherethefirstCarnivaloftheAmericaswasheld.[citationneeded] Carnivalmasksareelaborateandcolorful.ThecostumesusedontheparadesaresatiresoftheDevilandarecalled"DiablosCojuelos".Theydance,andruntotherhythmofmerenguemusicmixedwithtechno,hip-hop,andreggaeton.AdditionalallegoricalcharactersrepresentDominicantraditionssuchas"RobalaGallina"and"Califé".[citationneeded] OneofthemostinternationalparadesisinSanPedrodeMacorís.Itexhibitsthe"Guloyas"paradeofcostumedgroupsdancinginthestreets.Revelersfleefromthe"DiablosCojuelos"whotrytohitthemwith"Vejigas".[citationneeded] ThetimingofthefestivalshasgrownapartfromitsoriginalreligioussynchronizationwiththeperiodofLent.WithNationalIndependenceDayon27FebruaryandthebirthdayofJuanPabloDuarte,itsfoundingfather,on26January,theCarnivalcelebrationsfillFebruaryregardlessoftheLentencalendar.[73] Ecuador[edit] CarnivalparadeinLatacungacity. PartyinLatacungacity. InEcuador,thecelebrationsbeganbeforethearrivalofCatholicism.TheHuarangasIndians(fromtheChimbosnation)usedtocelebratethesecondmoonoftheyearwithafestivalatwhichtheythrewflour,flowers,andperfumedwater.ThisindigenoustraditionmergedwiththeCatholiccelebrationofCarnival.[citationneeded] AcommonfeatureofEcuadorianCarnivalisthediablitos(littledevils)whoplaywithwater.Aswithsnowballfights,thepracticeofthrowingordumpingwateronunsuspectingvictimsisreveredbychildrenandteenagersalthoughfearedbysomeadults.Throwingwaterballoons,sometimeseveneggsandflourbothtofriendsandstrangersisfun,butcanalsoupsettheuninformed.[citationneeded] Althoughthegovernmentaswellasschoolauthoritiesforbidsuchgames,theyarewidelypracticed.Historianstellofabishopin1867whothreatenedexcommunicationforthesinofplayingCarnivalgames.[citationneeded] Festivalsdifferacrossthecountry.Localsweardisguiseswithcolorfulmasksanddance.Usually,thecelebrationsbeginwiththeelectionofTaitaCarnival(FatherCarnival)whoheadsthefestivitiesandleadstheparadesineachcity.[citationneeded] ThemostfamedCarnivalfestivitiesareinGuaranda(Bolivarprovince)andAmbato(Tungurahuaprovince).InAmbato,thefestivitiesarecalledFiestadelasFloresylasFrutas(FestivaloftheFlowersandFruits).OthercitieshaverevivedCarnivaltraditionswithcolorfulparades,suchasinAzogues(CañarProvince).InAzoguesandtheSouthernAndesingeneral,TaitaCarnivalisalwaysanindigenousCañari.Recently,acelebrationhasgainedprominenceinthenorthernpartoftheAndesintheChotaValleyinImbaburawhichisazoneofastrongAfro-EcuadorianpopulationandsotheCarnivaliscelebratedwithbombadelchotamusic.[citationneeded] LatacungacelebratesCarnivalinthreemanners:[74]Carnivalwithwaterwherepeopleplaywithwater,religiousCarnivalwherepeoplemakereligiousfestivity,andCarnivalparadeinthecityinwhichpeoplemarchontheLatacungastreetswearingmaskswhiletheydancewithmusicbands.[citationneeded] FrenchGuiana[edit] Mainarticle:CarnivalinFrenchGuiana TheCarnivalofFrenchGuianahasrootsinCreoleculture.Everyoneparticipates–mainlandFrench,Brazilians(GuianahasafrontierwithBrazil),andChineseaswellasCreoles.[citationneeded] Itsdurationisvariable,determinedbymovablereligiousfestivals:CarnivalbeginsatEpiphanyandendsonAshWednesday,andsotypicallylaststhroughmostofJanuaryandFebruary.Duringthisperiod,fromFridayeveninguntilMondaymorningtheentirecountrythrobstotherhythmofmaskedballsandstreetparades.[citationneeded] Fridayafternoonsareforeatinggalettedesrois(thecakeofkings)anddrinkingchampagne.Thecakemaybeflavouredwithfrangipani,guava,orcoconut.[citationneeded] OnSundayafternoons,majorparadesfillthestreetsofCayenne,Kourou,andSaint-LaurentduMaroni.Competinggroupsprepareformonths.Dressedtofollowtheyear'sagreedtheme,theymarchwithCarnivalfloats,drums,andbrassbands.[citationneeded] Braziliangroupsareappreciatedfortheirelaboratefeatheredandsequinedcostumes.However,theyarenoteligibleforcompetitionsincethecostumesdonotchangeovertime.[citationneeded] Mythicalcharactersappearregularlyintheparades:[citationneeded] Karolin−asmallpersondressedinamagpietailandtophat,ridingonashrew. LesNèg'marrons−groupsofmendressedinredloincloths,bearingripetomatoesintheirmouthswhiletheirbodiesaresmearedwithgreaseormolasses.Theydeliberatelytrytocomeincontactwithspectators,soilingtheirclothes. Lesmakoumés−cross-dressingmen(outoftheCarnivalcontext,makouméisapejorativetermforahomosexual). Soussouris(thebat)−acharacterdressedinawingedleotardfromheadtofoot,usuallyblackincolour.Traditionallymalevolent,thischaracterisliabletochasespectatorsand"sting"them. Fourtouloulous AuniquelyCreoletraditionarethetouloulous.Thesewomenweardecorativegowns,gloves,masks,andheaddressesthatcoverthemcompletely,makingthemunrecognisable,eventothecolouroftheirskin.OnFridayandSaturdaynightsofCarnival,touloulouballsareheldinso-called"universities",largedancehallsthatopenonlyatCarnivaltime.Touloulousgetinfree,andareevengivencondomsintheinterestofthesexualhealthofthecommunity.Menattendtheballs,buttheypayadmittanceandarenotdisguised.Thetouloulouspicktheirdancepartners,whomaynotrefuse.Thesetupisdesignedtomakeiteasyforawomantocreateatemporaryliaisonwithamanintotalanonymity.Undisguisedwomenarenotwelcomed.Bytradition,ifsuchawomangetsuptodance,theorchestrastopsplaying.Alcoholisservedatbars–thedisguisedwomenwhispertothemen"touloulouthirsty",atwhicharoundofdrinksisexpected,tobedrunkthroughastrawprotecttheiranonymity.[citationneeded] Inmoremoderntimes,Guyanaismenhaveattemptedtoturnthetablesbystagingsoiréestololo,inwhichitisthemenwho,indisguise,seekpartnersfromundisguisedwomenbystanders.[citationneeded] ThefinalfourdaysofCarnivalfollowarigidschedule,andnoworkisdone:[citationneeded] Sunday−TheGrandParade,inwhichthegroupscompete. Monday−Marriageburlesque,withmendressedasbridesandwomenasgrooms. Tuesday−RedDevilDayinwhicheveryonewearsredorblack. (Ash)Wednesday−Dressisblackandwhiteonly,forthegrandceremonyofburningtheeffigyofVaval,KingCarnival. Guatemala[edit] ThemostfamousCarnivalcelebrationinGuatemalaisinMazatenango.DuringFebruary,Mazatenangoisfamousforitseight-dayCarnivalFeast.Daysoffood,music,parades,andgamesfillthestreetsoftheSuchitepéquezDepartment.AsoneGuatemalanwebsitestates,"TomentiontheCarnivalofMazatenangoistobringtomindmomentsofahappyandcordialparty.Intheeightdaysofthiscelebration'sduration,thelocalresidentshavekeptalivethetraditionsoftheDepartment."[citationneeded] Haiti[edit] Mainarticle:HaitianCarnival CarnivalinHaitistartedin1804inthecapitalPort-au-Princeafterthedeclarationofindependence.ThePort-au-PrinceCarnivalisoneofthelargestinNorthAmerica.ItisknownasKanavalintheCreolelanguage.ItstartsinJanuary,knownas"Pre-Kanaval",whilethemaincarnivalactivitiesbegininFebruary.InJuly2012,HaitihadanothercarnivalcalledKanavaldeFleur.Beautifulcostumes,floats,Raraparades,[75]masks,foods,andpopularrasinmusic(suchasBoukmanEksperyans,FoulaVodoule,Tokay,BoukanGinen,andEritaj)andkompabands(suchasT-Vice,DjakoutNo.1,SweetMicky,Kreyòl La,D.P.Express,MizikMizik,Ram,T-Micky,Carimi,DjakoutMizik,andScorpioFever)playfordancersinthestreetsoftheplazaofChamp-de-Mars.Anannualsongcompetitiontakesplace.[citationneeded] OtherplacesinHaiticelebratecarnival,includingJacmelandAuxCayes.In2013,KanavalwascelebratedinOkap(Cap-Haïtien).[citationneeded] CarnivalfinishesonAshWednesday,followedbyrara,anotherparadingmusicaltraditionknownmainlyinHaitiandintheDominicanRepublic.Thisfestivalemphasisesreligion.Songsarecomposedeachyear,andbandsplaybambootubes(vaksin)andhomemadehorns(konèt).RaraisalsoperformedinProspectandCentralParkinsummertimeNewYork.[76] Honduras[edit] InLaCeibainHonduras,CarnivalisheldonthethirdorfourthSaturdayofeveryMaytocommemorateSanIsidro.[77][78]ItisthelargestCarnivalcelebrationinCentralAmerica.[79][80] Mexico[edit] Mainarticle:CarnivalinMexico InMexico,Carnavaliscelebratedinabout225citiesandtowns.ThelargestareinMazatlánandthecityofVeracruz,withothersinBajaCaliforniaandYucatán.ThelargercityCarnavalsemploycostumes,electedqueens,andparadeswithfloats,butCarnavalcelebrationsinsmallerandruralareasvarywidelydependingonthelevelofEuropeaninfluenceduringMexico'scolonialperiod.ThelargestoftheseisinHuejotzingo,Puebla,wheremosttownspeopletakepartinmockcombatwithriflesshootingblanks,roughlybasedontheBattleofPuebla.OtherimportantstateswithlocaltraditionsincludeMorelos,Oaxaca,Tlaxcala,andChiapas.[81]CarnavalofCampechegoesback400years,to1582.[82] Nicaragua[edit] OntheCaribbeancoastofBluefields,Nicaragua,Carnivalisbetterknownas"PalodeMayo"(orMayoYa!)andiscelebratedeverydayofMay.[83] InManagua,itiscelebratedfortwodays.ThereitisnamedAlegriaporlavida("JoyforLife")andfeaturesadifferentthemeeachyear.AnotherfestivalinManaguacelebratespatronsaintDomingodeGuzmanandlaststendays.[84] Panama[edit] TwoQueens,representingCalleArribaandCalleAbajo,standingonafloat Aculeco TraditionallybeginningonFridayandendingontheTuesdaybeforeAshWednesday,"losCarnavales",asPanamaniansrefertothedaysofCarnival,arecelebratedacrossthecountry.CarnivalWeekisespeciallypopularinthesleepytownofLasTablas.ThepopulationmultipliesbecauseoftheopulentCarnivalcelebrations.CarnivalcelebrationsinPanamaCityandalmostalloftheAzueroPeninsulaarepopulartouristattractions.PenonoméfeaturesaparadeontheRioZaratiasauniqueCarnivalevent. ThePanamanianCarnivalisalsopopularbecauseoftheconcertsfeaturingpopularartistsinthemostvisitedareas.Concertsareoftencarriedoutduringthenight,andcontinueuntilthenextmorning. CarnivalWeekisanationalholidayinPanama,withmostbusinessesandgovernmentofficesremainingclosedduringitsduration,andwithmostPanamaniansoptingtogotothecountry'sruralareastoparticipateontheCarnivalsandvisittheirrelatives. CarnivalsinPanamaalsofeaturelargerepurposedfueltrucksthatareusedforsoakingattendeesthroughtheuseoffirehosesthatarecontrolledanddirectedbyoneormorepeoplethatstandinaplatformthatismountedontopofthetruck.Thisisknownas"culecos"or"losculecos".Trucksgettheirwaterfromnearby,government-approvedrivers,andthewateristestedforcleanlinessbeforeuse.Culecosareoftenperformedfrom10AMto3PM,whenthesunisatitsbrightest.Childrenandpregnantwomenarebannedfromparticipatingintheculecos,andthetrucksarealwayssponsoredbyawell-knownPanamaniancompanyorbrand.Theculecosarealsooftenaccompaniedbyreggaetonconcerts.[85][86][87][88] Theopenconsumptionoflargeamountsofcold,low-alcoholbeerorSmirnoff,storedinice-filledcoolers,iscommonamongattendees.JustlikeinRiodeJaneiro,somecarnivalsalsofeaturefloats,buttheymayhaveyoungwomenwithelaboratecostumesthatstandasthe"Queens"of"CalleArriba"and"CalleAbajo",representingrichandworking-classpeople,respectively.ThequeensarechosenthroughacontestandannouncedonOctoberofthepreviousyear,andarereplacedeveryyear.Thequeensareintroducedonthefirstcarnivalday,andarealwaysaccompaniedbyamusicband,whoarepresentwheneverthequeensarepresent.Fireworksarelaunchedonthelastcarnivalnight,tosignaltheendofthecarnival.[89] Peru[edit] Morenadadance,intheCarnivalofJuliaca–Peru Cajamarca[edit] ThetownofCajamarcaisconsideredthecapitalofCarnivalinPeru.Localresidentsofallagesdancearoundtheunsha,oryunsa[whatlanguageisthis?],atreeadornedwithribbons,balloons,toys,fruits,bottlesofliquor,andotherprizes.[citationneeded] Atacertainpoint,theMayordomo(governorofthefeast)walksintothecircle.Thegovernorchoosesapartnertogototheunsha,whichtheyattempttocutdownbystrikingitthreetimeswithamachete.Themacheteispassedfromcoupletocoupleaseachstrikesthetreethreetimes.Whentheunshafinallyfalls,thecrowdrushestograbtheprizes.[citationneeded] Thepersonwhosuccessfullybringsdowntheunshabecomesthefollowingyear'sgovernor.[citationneeded] Crime[edit] Whilegenerallypeaceful,therehavebeenissueswithpeopleusingCarnivalasapretextforcrime,particularlyrobberyorvandalism,especiallyincertainareasofLima.[90] PuertoRico[edit] Mainarticle:CarnavaldePonce PuertoRico'smostpopularfestivalsaretheCarnavaldeLoizaandCarnavaldePonce.TheCarnavaldePonce(officially"CarnavalPonceño")iscelebratedannuallyinPonce.ThecelebrationlastsoneweekandendsonthedaybeforeAshWednesday.ItisoneoftheoldestcarnivalsoftheWesternHemisphere,datingto1858.[91]SomeauthoritiestracethePonceCarnavaltotheeighteenthcentury.[92][93] TrinidadandTobago[edit] MasqueraderschippingonCarnivalTuesdayinPortofSpainduringTrinidadandTobagoCarnival Mainarticle:TrinidadandTobagoCarnival InTrinidadandTobago,CarnivallastsmonthsandculminatesinlargecelebrationsonthethreedaysbeforeAshWednesdaywithDimancheGras,J'ouvert,andMas(masquerade).Tobago'scelebrationculminatesonMondayandTuesdayonamuchsmallerscale.Carnivalcombinescostumes,dance,music,competitions,rum,andpartying(fete-ing).Musicstylesincludesoca,calypso,rapso,andmorerecentlychutneyandchutneysoca.[citationneeded] TheannualCarnivalsteelpancompetitionknownastheNationalPanoramacompetitionholdsthefinalsontheSaturdaybeforethemainevent.Panplayerscompeteincategoriessuchas"ConventionalSteelBand"or"SinglePanBand"byperformingrenditionsoftheyear'scalypsos.[94] "DimancheGras"takesplaceontheSundaynightbeforeAshWednesday.HeretheCalypsoMonarchischosen(aftercompetition)andprizemoneyandavehicleawarded.TheKingandQueenofthebandsarecrowned,whereeachbandparadescostumesfortwodaysandsubmitsakingandqueen,fromwhichanoverallwinnerischosen.Theseusuallyinvolvehuge,complex,beautifulwell-craftedcostumes,thatincludes'wire-bending'.[95] J'ouvert,or"DirtyMas",takesplacebeforedawnontheMonday(knownasCarnivalMonday)beforeAshWednesday.Itmeans"openingoftheday".Revelersdressincostumesembodyingpunsoncurrentaffairs,especiallypoliticalandsocialevents."CleanMud"(claymud),oilpaintandbodypaintarefamiliarduringJ'ouvert.Acommoncharacteris"Jab-jabs"(devils,blue,black,orred)completewithpitchfork,pointedhornsandtails.AKingandQueenofJ'ouvertarechosen,basedontheirwittypolitical/socialmessages.[citationneeded] TheCarnivalKingcostumeforaparticularband CarnivalMondayinvolvestheparadeofthemasbands.Revelerswearonlypartsoftheircostumes,moreforfunthandisplayorcompetition.MondayNightMasispopularinmosttownsandespeciallythecapital,wheresmallerbandscompete.Thereisalsothe"BombCompetition",asmaller-scaledjudgingofsteelbands.[96][citationneeded] CarnivalTuesdayhoststhemainevents.Fullcostumeisworn,completewithmake-upandbodypaint/adornment.Usually"MasBoots"thatcomplementthecostumesareworn.Eachbandhastheircostumepresentationbasedonaparticulartheme,andcontainsvarioussections(someconsistingofthousandsofrevelers)thatreflectthesethemes.Thestreetparadeandbandcostumecompetitiontakeplace.ThemasbandseventuallyconvergeontheQueen'sParkSavannahtopasson"TheStage"forjudging.ThesingerofthemostplayedsongiscrownedRoadMarchKingorQueen,earningprizemoneyandusuallyavehicle.[citationneeded] ThisparadingandrevelrygoesonuntilTuesdaymidnight.AshWednesdayitself,whilenotanofficialholiday,sendsflockstolocalbeaches.ThemostpopularareMaracasBeachandManzanillaBeach,wherehugebeachpartiestakeplaceonAshWednesday.[citationneeded] UnitedStates[edit] Mainarticles:MardiGrasintheUnitedStates;MardiGrasinMobile,Alabama;MardiGrasinNewOrleans;andCourirdeMardiGras RevelersonFrenchmenStreet,NewOrleans,2006 Carnivalcelebrations,usuallyreferredtoasMardiGras("FatTuesday"inFrench),werefirstcelebratedintheGulfCoastarea,butnowoccurinmanystates.[97]CustomsoriginatedintheonetimeFrenchcolonialcapitalsofMobile(nowinAlabama),NewOrleans(Louisiana),andBiloxi(Mississippi),allofwhichhavecelebratedformanyyearswithstreetparadesandmasqueradeballs.OthermajorAmericancitieswithcelebrationsincludeWashington,D.C.;[98]St.Louis,Missouri;[99]SanFrancisco[100]andSanDiego,[101]California;Galveston,Texas;[102]andPensacola,[103]Tampa,[104]andOrlando[105]inFlorida. Themostwidelyknown,elaborate,andpopularU.S.eventsareinNewOrleans,wherekrewesorganizeparades,balls,andotheractivitiesstartingwithPhunnyPhortyPhellowsstreetcarparadeonTwelfthNightandendingwiththeclosingofBourbonStreetatmidnightonFatTuesday.[106]Itisoftencalled"thegreatestfreepartyonearth".[107]ManyotherLouisianacitiessuchasLakeCharles,BatonRouge,Shreveport,Lafayette,Mamou,Houma,andThibodaux,mostofwhichwereunderFrenchcontrolatonetimeoranother,alsoholdCarnivalcelebrations.[108]OntheprairiecountrynorthwestofLafayette,Louisiana,theCajunscelebratethetraditionalCourirdeMardiGras,whichhasitsrootsincelebrationsfromruralMedievalFrance.[109] InNewYorkCity,aCaribbeanCarnivalknownastheWestIndianDayParadeisheldinCrownHeights,BrooklynonLaborDay.FoundedbyimmigrantsfromTrinidad,theeventwasinitiallyheldatthebeginningofLent,butwaslatermovedtoLaborDayinordertoallowanoutdooreventinthesummer.[110] Startingin2013,theSlovenian-AmericancommunitylocatedintheSt.Clair-SuperiorneighborhoodofClevelandbeganhostingalocalversionofKurentovanje,theCarnivaleventheldinthecityofPtuj,Slovenia.[111]TheeventisconductedontheSaturdaypriortoAshWednesday.[111] Uruguay[edit] Afro-UruguayansgatheringforaCandombecelebration,ca.1870 TheCarnivalinUruguaylastsmorethan40days,generallybeginningtowardstheendofJanuaryandrunningthroughmidMarch.CelebrationsinMontevideoarethelargest.ThefestivalisperformedintheEuropeanparadestylewithelementsfromBantuandAngolanBenguelaculturesimportedwithslavesincolonialtimes.ThemainattractionsofUruguayanCarnivalincludetwocolorfulparadescalledDesfiledeCarnaval(CarnivalParade)andDesfiledeLlamadas(CallsParade,acandombe-summoningparade).[112] Duringthecelebration,theaterscalledtabladosarebuiltinmanyplacesthroughoutthecities,especiallyinMontevideo.[113]Traditionallyformedbymenandnowstartingtobeopentowomen,thedifferentCarnivalgroups(Murgas,Lubolos,orParodistas)performakindofpopularoperaatthetablados,singinganddancingsongsthatgenerallyrelatetothesocialandpoliticalsituation.The'Calls'groups,basicallyformedbydrummersplayingthetamboril,performcandomberhythmicfigures.ThecarnivalinUruguayhaveescolasdesambatoo,andthebiggestsambaparadesareinArtigasandinMontevideo.Revelersweartheirfestivalclothing.Eachgrouphasitsowntheme.Womenwearingelegant,brightdressesarecalledvedettesandprovideasensualtouchtoparades.[citationneeded] Europeanarchetypes(Pierrot,Harlequin,andColumbina)mergewithAfricanancestralelements(theOldMotherorMamaVieja,theMedicineManorGramilleroandtheMagicianorEscobero)inthefestival.[114] Venezuela[edit] CarnivalinVenezuelacoverstwodays,40daysbeforeEaster.Itisatimewhenyouthinmanyruraltownshavewaterfights(includingtheuseofwaterballoonsandwaterguns).Anypedestrianrisksgettingsoaked.CoastaltownsandprovincescelebrateCarnivalmoreferventlythanelsewhereinthecountry.VenezuelansregardCarnivalaboutthesamewaytheyregardChristmasandSemanaSanta(HolyWeek;theweekbeforeEasterSunday)whentheytaketheopportunitytovisittheirfamilies.[115] Asia[edit] India[edit] PanajilocalsparticipatingattheGoanCarnival,late20thcentury ForeigntouristrevellersatthemodernGoanCarnival,2005 InIndia,CarnivaliscelebratedonlyinthestateofGoaandwasoriginallyalocalRomanCatholictraditionknownasIntruzwhichmeans"swindler"inKonkaniwhileEntrudoistheappropriatewordinPortuguesefor"Carnival".ThepresentcommercialversionoftheGoancarnival(KingMomo,floats,etc.)wascreatedbasedontheRioCarnivalonlyinthe1960sasameansofattractingtourism.[116]ThelargestcelebrationtakesplaceinthecapitalPanaji.ThecommercialCarnivalfestivitiesoccurduringthethreedaysandnightsprecedingAshWednesday.SixtusEricDiasfromCandolimwastheKingMomofortheCarnival2021.All-nightparadesoccurthroughoutthestatewithbands,dances,andfloats.Grandballsareheldintheevenings.[117] Indonesia[edit] InIndonesia,theword"carnival"orkarnavalisnotrelatedtopre-Lentfestivities,butmoretofestivalsingeneral,especiallythosewithprocessionsandextravagantcostumes.OneofthelargestcarnivalsinIndonesiaistheSoloBatikCarnival,heldinSolo,CentralJava.TheJemberFashionCarnavalisheldinJember,EastJava.[118] TheRomanCatholiccommunityofKupang,EastNusaTenggara,heldanEasterprocessioninformofanEasterCarnivalcalledPawaiPaskahKupang.[119] Israel[edit] Mainarticle:Adloyada Europe[edit] Long-NéandLonguès-Brèsses(Malmedy) GiantJokerofMaaseikin2013 VenetianMask2016 CarnivalinDonetsk,Ukraine,2010 Albania[edit] CarnivalshavebeguntobecelebratedinKorçabefore1940,aperiodinwhichculturallifeinthiscityhasbeenvaried.Althoughapaganholiday,theCarnivalwaslatercelebratedonFeastDayinFebruary.Inadditiontothemanycarnival-wearingindividuals,therewerebandswithguitars,bows,andbutaphoric[checkspelling]maskssuchasanimalheadsandhumans.TheKorçaCarnivaltookabighitafterthecreationofculturalsocietiessuchasthe"KorçaYouth".Duringthisperiodcarnivalswereaccompaniedbymandolins,guitarsandhumoroussongs.Carnivalcelebrationswerediscontinuedafter1960,toresumeinothersocialconditionsafter1990.KorçaisoneofthefirstcitiestorevivetheCarnivaltraditionbyestablishingtheCarnivalAssociationin1992aspartoftheNationalCarnivalAssociationofAlbania.On10April1994,thefirstInternationalCarnivalFestivalinAlbaniawasorganizedinKorça.Thefollowingyear,thesecondInternationalCarnivalFestivalisevenlarger.Sincethisyearanduntil2008,theKorcaCarnivalgrouphasbeenrepresentedatanumberofinternationalfestivalsorganizedinvariousEuropeancountries. Belgium[edit] ManypartsofBelgiumcelebrateCarnival,typicallywithcostumeparades,partyingandfireworks.TheseareasincludetheprovinceofLimburgwithitscitiesMaasmechelen,MaaseikandLanakenalongtheriverMeuse,thecitiesofAalst,Ninove,Binche,Eupen,Halle,Heist,Kelmis,Malmedy,andStavelot.[citationneeded] TheCarnivalofBinchedatesatleasttothe14thcentury.ParadesareheldoverthethreedaysbeforeLent;themostimportantparticipantsaretheGilles,whoweartraditionalcostumesonShroveTuesdayandthrowbloodorangestothecrowd.[120]In2003,theCarnivalofBinchewasrecognisedasoneoftheMasterpiecesoftheOralandIntangibleHeritageofHumanity.[121]TheCarnivalofAalst,celebratedduringthethreedaysprecedingAshWednesday,receivedthesamerecognitionin2010.[122] TheCarnivalofMalmedyislocallycalledCwarmê.EvenifMalmedyislocatedintheeastBelgium,neartheGerman-speakingarea,theCwarmêisapureWalloonandLatincarnival.ThecelebrationtakesplaceduringthefourdaysbeforeShroveTuesday.TheCwarmêSundayisthemostimportantandinterestingtosee.Alltheoldtraditionalcostumesparadeinthestreet.TheCwarmêisa"streetcarnival"andisnotonlyaparade.Peoplewhoaredisguisedpassthroughthecrowdandperformapartofthetraditionalcostumetheywear.ThefamoustraditionalcostumesattheCwarmêofMalmedyaretheHaguète,theLonguès-Brèsses,andtheLong-Né[123]. SomeBelgiancitiesholdCarnivalsduringLent.Oneofthebest-knownisStavelot,wheretheCarnivaldelaLaetaretakesplaceonLaetareSunday,thefourthSundayofLent.TheparticipantsincludetheBlancs-Moussis,whodressinwhite,carrylongrednosesandparadethroughtownattackingbystanderswithconfettianddriedpigbladders.ThecityofHallealsocelebratesonLaetareSunday.Belgium'soldestparadeistheCarnivalParadeofMaaseik,alsoheldonLaetareSunday,whichoriginatedin1865.[124][citationneeded] BosniaandHerzegovina[edit] InBosniaandHerzegovina,theCroat-majoritycityofLjubuškiholdsatraditionalCarnival(Bosnian:Karneval).LjubuškiisamemberoftheFederationofEuropeanCarnivalCities(FECC).[citationneeded] MainsquareinRijekaduringCarnival "Pirates"duringCarnivalinČakovec Croatia[edit] ThemostfamousCroatianCarnival(Croatian:karneval,alsocalledmaškareorfašnik)istheRijekaCarnival,duringwhichthemayorofRijekahandsoverthekeystothecitytotheCarnivalmaster(meštarodkarnevala).Thefestivalincludesseveralevents,culminatingonthefinalSundayinamaskedprocession.(Asimilarprocessionforchildrentakesplaceonthepreviousweekend.)[citationneeded] ManytownsinCroatia'sKvarnerregion(andinotherpartsofthecountry,e.g.inMeđimurjeCountyinNorthernCroatia)observetheCarnivalperiod,incorporatinglocaltraditionsandcelebratinglocalculture.SomeofthetownsandplacesareGrobnik,Permani,KastavandmanyothersplacesnearRijeka,thenČakovec,Samoboretc.JustbeforetheendofCarnival,everyKvarnertownburnsaman-likedollcalleda"Pust",whoisblamedforallthestrifeofthepreviousyear.TheZvončari,orbell-ringerspushawaywinterandallthebadthingsinthepastyearandcallingspring,theywearbellsandlargeheadregaliarepresentingtheirareasoforigin(forexample,thosefromHalubjewearregaliaintheshapeofanimalheads).ThetraditionalCarnivalfoodisfritule,apastry.ThisfestivalcanalsobecalledPoklade.[citationneeded] "Coprnice"(Witches)fromMeđimurjeCounty,NorthernCroatia Masksareworntomanyofthefestivities,includingconcertsandparties.Childrenandteachersarecommonlyallowedtowearmaskstoschoolforaday,andalsowearmasksatschooldancesorwhiletrick-or-treating.Carnivalsalsotakeplaceinsummer.OneofthemostfamousistheSenjSummerCarnival–firstcelebratedin1968.ThetownsofCres,Pag,NoviVinodolski,andFužinealsoorganiseSummerCarnivals.[citationneeded] Cyprus[edit] CarnivalhasbeencelebratedinCyprusforcenturies.ThetraditionwaslikelyestablishedunderVenetianrulearoundthe16thcentury.ItmayhavebeeninfluencedbyGreektraditions,suchasfestivitiesfordeitiessuchasDionysus.Thecelebrationoriginallyinvolveddressingincostumesandholdingmaskedballsorvisitingfriends.Inthetwentiethcentury,itbecameanorganizedeventheldduringthe10daysprecedingLent(accordingtotheGreekOrthodoxcalendar).ThefestivaliscelebratedalmostexclusivelyinthecityofLimassol.[citationneeded] ThreemainparadestakeplaceduringCarnival.Thefirstisheldonthefirstday,duringwhichthe"CarnivalKing"(eitherapersonincostumeoraneffigy)ridesthroughthecityonhiscarriage.ThesecondisheldonthefirstSundayofthefestival,andtheparticipantsaremainlychildren.ThethirdandlargesttakesplaceonthelastdayofCarnivalandinvolveshundredsofpeoplewalkingincostumealongthetown'slongestavenue.Thelattertwoparadesareopentoanyonewhowishestoparticipate.[citationneeded] CzechRepublic[edit] Seealso:Slaviccarnival MasopustmasksinCzechRepublic,2013 IntheCzechRepublic,theMasopustFestivaltakesplacefromEpiphany(Dentříkrálů)throughAshWednesday(Popelečnístředa).ThewordmasopusttranslatesliterallyfromoldCzechtomean"meatfast",andthefestivaloftenincludesaporkfeast.ThetraditionismostcommoninMoraviabutalsooccursinBohemia.Whilepracticesvary,masksandcostumesarepresenteverywhere.[125] DenmarkandNorway[edit] Mainarticle:Fastelavn CarnivalinDenmarkiscalledFastelavn,andisheldontheSundayorMondaybeforeAshWednesday.TheholidayissometimesdescribedasaNordicHalloween,withchildrendressingincostumeandgatheringtreatsfortheFastelavnfeast.Onepopularcustomisthefastelavnsris,aswitchthatchildrenusetoflogtheirparentstowakethemuponFastelavnsSunday.[citationneeded] InNorway,studentshavingseencelebrationsinParisintroducedCarnivalprocessions,maskedballs,andCarnivalballstoChristianainthe1840sand1850s.From1863,theartistfederationKunstnerforeningenheldannualCarnivalballsintheoldFreemasonslodge,whichinspiredJohanSvendsen'scompositionsNorskKunstnerkarnevalandKarnevalinParis.Thefollowingyear,Svendsen'sFestpolonaisewaswrittenfortheopeningprocession.EdvardGriegattendedandwrote"AusdemKarneval"(FolkelivsbillederOp.19).Since1988,thestudentorganizationTårnseilerne [no]hasproducedannualmasqueradeballsinOslo,withmasks,costumes,andprocessionsafterattendinganoperaperformance.TheCarnivalseasonalsoincludesFastelavenssøndag(withcreambuns)andfastelavensriswithdecoratedbranches.[citationneeded] England[edit] Mainarticle:ShroveTuesday InEngland,theseasonimmediatelybeforeLentwascalledShrovetide.Atimeforconfessingsins("shriving"),ithadfewerfestivitiesthantheContinentalCarnivals.Today,ShroveTuesdayiscelebratedasPancakeDay,butlittleelseoftheLent-relatedShrovetidesurvivedthe16th-centuryEnglishReformation.TheShrovetideCarnivalintheUnitedKingdomiscelebratedinCowesandEastCowesontheIsleofWight.Since2012,HastingsinEastSussexhascelebratedwithitsownMardiGras,orFatTuesday. FivedaysofmusicandstreeteventsculminatingwithaGrandBallonFatTuesdayitself.LooselybasedontheNewOrleansstyleofcarnival,Hastingshastakenitsowncourse.[126] Finland[edit] The2016HelsinkiSambaCarnavalinHelsinki,Finland TheHelsinkiSambaCarnaval,modelledafterthesambacarnivalsinBrazil,takesplaceeveryyearinmiddleJune.Thecarnivallacksaproperhistoricaltraditionandhasinsteadmostlygrownfromexperimenting. France[edit] CarnivalinParis,2015. SomemajorCarnivalsofmainlandFrancearetheNiceCarnival,theDunkirkCarnivalandtheLimouxCarnival.TheNiceCarnivalwasheldasfarbackas1294,andannuallyattractsoveramillionvisitorsduringthetwoweeksprecedingLent.[citationneeded] Since1604,acharacteristicmaskedCarnivaliscelebratedinLimoux.[127] TheDunkirkCarnivalisamongthegreatestandmostexuberantcarnivalscelebratedinEurope.Itstraditionsdatebacktothe17thcenturyandarebasedonthevischerbendeasfishermenwentfromonecafétoanotheraccompaniedbytheirrelativesandfriendsjustbeforedepartingtoIcelandicfishinggrounds.[citationneeded] IntheFrenchWestIndies,itoccursbetweentheSundayofEpiphanyandAshWednesday;[128]thisdatesbacktothearrivalofFrenchcolonistsintheislands.[citationneeded] Germany,Switzerland,andAustria[edit] Mainarticles:KarnevalinGermanyandAustriaandFastnachtorFasnachtinGermany,Switzerland,AlsaceandAustria Germany[edit] CarnivalinMainz,Germany. TheearliestwrittenrecordofCarnivalinGermanywasin1296inSpeyer.[129]ThefirstworldwideCarnivalparadetookplaceinColognein1823.[citationneeded] ThemostactiveCarnivalweekbeginsontheThursdaybeforeAshWednesday,withparadesduringtheweekend,andfinishesthenightbeforeAshWednesday,withthemainfestivitiesoccurringaroundRosenmontag(RoseMonday).Thistimeisalsocalledthe"FifthSeason".ShroveTuesday,calledFastnachtorVeilchendienstag,iscelebratedinsomecities. Partiesfeatureself-madeandmorefancifulcostumesandoccasionalmasks.ThepartiesbecomemoreexuberantastheweeksprogressandpeakafterNewYear,inJanuaryandFebruary.ThefinalTuesdayfeaturesall-nightparties,dancing,hugging,andsmooching.Somepartiesareforall,someforwomenonlyandsomeforchildren.Fasnachtsküchle(similartoKreppelordonuts)arethetraditionalFaschingfoodandarebakedorfried.[citationneeded] InGermany,RheinischerKarnivalandSchwäbischeFastnachtaredistinct;firstislessformalandmorepolitical,secondismuchmoretraditional.[citationneeded] "RhenishCarnival"(RheinischerKarneval,Fasnacht,Fasnet,Fastabend,Fastelovend,Fasteleer,Fasching)[edit] The"Rheinische"CarnivalisheldinthewestofGermany,mainlyinthestatesofNorthRhine-WestphaliaandRhineland-Palatinate,butalsoinHesse(includingUpperHesse).SimilarformsofthefestivaloccurinBavaria,andotherstates.Somecitiesaremorefamousforcelebrationssuchasparadesandcostumeballs.TheCologneCarnival,aswellasthoseinMainz,EschweilerandDüsseldorf,arethelargestandmostfamous.Othercitieshavetheirown,oftenlesswell-knowncelebrations,parades,andparties,suchasAachen,Bonn,WormsamRhein,Speyer,Kaiserslautern,Frankfurt,Darmstadt,Duisburg,Dortmund,Essen,Mannheim,Münster,Krefeld,Ludwigshafen,Mönchengladbach,Stuttgart,Augsburg,Munich,andNuremberg.ThebiggestGermancarnivalclubislocatedinalittletownDieburginSouthHesse.FestivitiescanstartasearlyasNovember11at11:11amforsomecarnivalorganizations,thoughthemaineventsareoftenaftertheChristmasseason.[130]OnCarnivalThursday(called"OldWomenDay"or"TheWomen'sDay"incommemorationofan1824revoltbywasher-women),womenstormcityhalls,cutmen'sties,andareallowedtokissanypassingman.Specialacrobaticshowdancesinmockuniformsareatraditionalcontributiontomostfestiveballs.TheymayormaynothavebeenasourceofinspirationtoAmericancheerleading.TheFaschingparadesandfloatsmakefunofindividualpoliticiansandotherpublicfigures.Manyspeechesdothesame.[131] Traditionsoftenalsoincludethe"Faschingssitzung"–asit-onlypartywithdancingandsingingpresentations,andoftenmanyspeechesgiventhathumorouslycriticizepolitics. "Swabian-Alemannic"Carnival(SchwäbischeFastnacht)[edit] Reitenderle,derGrundholde,Hudelmale,Schnarragagges;popularFasnetcharactersfromKissleggimAllgäu,Swabia TheSwabian-AlemannicFastnacht,knownasSchwäbischeFastnacht,takesplaceinBaden,Swabia,theAllgäu,Alsace,andVorarlberg(westernAustria).Duringthepaganera,itrepresentedthetimeofyearwhenthereignofthegrimwinterspiritsisover,andthesespiritsarehuntedandexpelled.ItthenadaptedtoCatholicism.ThefirstofficialrecordofKarneval,FaschingorFastnachtinGermanydatesto1296.[132][133]Oftenthecostumesandmasksonparadesstrictlyfollowtraditionaldesignsandrepresentspecifichistoricalcharacters,publicfigures–orspecificdaemons. SwissFasnacht[edit] FromtheMonstercorsoonGüdisdienstag'seveninginLucerne(2009) InSwitzerland,FasnachttakesplaceintheCatholiccantonsofSwitzerland,e.g.inLucerne(LozärnerFasnacht),butalsoinProtestantBasel.However,theBaslerFasnachtbeginsontheMondayafterAshWednesday.BothbeganintheLateMiddleAges.SmallerFasnachtfestivitiestakeplaceacrossGermanSwitzerland,e.g.inBernandOlten,orintheeasternpart(Zurich,St.Gallen,Appenzell).[citationneeded] Greece[edit] ThefloatoftheKingCarnivalparadinginPatras,Greece InGreece,CarnivalisknownasApókries(Απόκριες,lit.'[goodbye]tomeat'),andofficiallybeginswiththe"OpeningoftheTriodion",theliturgicalbookusedbytheOrthodoxChurchfromthenuntilHolyWeek.[134]ApokriesismadeupofthreethemedweeksofcelebrationknownasProphoní(Προφωνή,'preannouncementweek'),Kreatiní(Κρεατινή,'meatweek'),andTiriní(Τυρινή,'cheeseweek').Oneoftheseason'shighpointsduringKreatiniisTsiknopémpti(lit.'Smoky-Thursday'),whencelebrantsthrowlargeoutdoorpartiesandroasthugeamountsofmeat;theritualisrepeatedthefollowingSunday,afterwhichpointmeatisforbiddenuntilEaster.Thefollowingweek,Tirini,ismarkedbysimilarfestivitiesrevolvingaroundtheconsumptionofcheese,eggs,anddairyandculminateswitha"CheeseSunday."GreatLent,anditsrestrictivefastingrules,beginsinearnestthenextdayonCleanMonday.ThroughouttheCarnivalseason,festivals,parades,andballsareheldalloverthecountry.Manypeopledisguisethemselvesasmaskarádes("masqueraders")andengageinpranksandrevelrythroughouttheseason.[135] PatrasholdsthelargestannualCarnivalinGreece,andoneofthelargestintheworld.ThefamousPatrasCarnivalisathree-dayspectaclerepletewithconcerts,theatreperformances,paradingtroupes,anelaboratetreasurehuntgame,threemajorparades,parallelcelebrationsspecificallyforchildren,andmanymasqueradeballsincludingthefamousBourboúlia(Μπουρμπούλια)ballinwhichwomenwearspecialrobe-likecostumescalledadóminotohidetheiridenty.[136]Thefestivitiescometoacrescendoon"CheeseSunday"whenTheGrandParadeoftroupesandfloatsleadscelebratorstotheharborfortheceremonialburningoftheeffigyofKingCarnival.[137] LadiesontheirwaytothehistoricBourbouliaballinPatras,Greecewearingthedóminocostumesuniquetothatball. TheCarnivalinCorfuismuchinfluencedbytheCarnivalofVenice.Duringthisperiod,varioustheatricalsketchesarepresentedontheisland,calledPetególiaorPetegolétsa(Πετεγολέτσα)inthelocaldialect.Inpreviouscenturies,existedalsothecustomof"Giostra"(jousting).[138] ThesecondbiggestCarnivalinGreecetakesplaceinXanthi(EasternMacedoniaandThrace)since1966anditisthemajoreventofitskindinNorthernGreece.TheXanthiCarnivalmanagestoattractvisitorsfromthenearbycountriessuchasBulgaria,Turkey,andRomania.[139]Otherregionshostfestivitiesofsmallerextent,focusedonthereenactmentoftraditionalcarnivalcustoms,suchasTyrnavos(Thessaly),Kozani(WesternMacedonia),Rethymno(Crete).TyrnavosholdsanannualPhallusfestival,atraditional"phallkloric"event[140]inwhichgiant,gaudilypaintedeffigiesofphallusesmadeofpapier-mâchéareparaded,andwhichwomenareaskedtotouchorkiss.Theirrewardforsodoingisashotofthefamouslocaltsipouroalcoholspirit.[141] Everyyear,from1–8January,mostlyinregionsofWesternMacedonia,traditionalCarnivalfestivalserupt.BestknownoftheseistheRagoutsária(Ραγκουτσάρια)[142]festivalinthecityofKastoriawhosecelebrationmaydatebacktoantiquityandwhosenamederivesfromtheLatinwordrogatores'beggars',inreferencetothebeggarswhocouldminglewiththerichintheirmasks.[143]Ittakesplacefrom6–8Januarywithmassparticipationandisnotedforitsbrassbands,flutes,andMacedoniandrums.Itisanancientcelebrationofnature'srebirthakintoancientfestivalsforDionysus(Dionysia)andKronos(Saturnalia).[143] Hungary[edit] TheBusójárásinHungary InMohács,Hungary,theBusójárásisacelebrationheldattheendoftheCarnivalseason.Itinvolveslocalsdressinginwoollycostumes,withscarymasksandnoise-makers.Accordingtolegend,thefestivalcelebratesboththeconclusionofthewinterseasonandavictorybythelocalpeopleoverinvadingOttomansin1526.[144] Italy[edit] Mainarticles:CarnivalinItalyandCarnivalofVenice ThisVenetiantraditionismostfamousforitsdistinctivemasks. TheBattleoftheOrangesatthecarnivalofIvrea ThemostfamousCarnivalsofItalyareheldinVenice,Viareggio,andIvrea. TheCarnivalinVenicewasfirstrecordedin1268.ItssubversivenatureisreflectedinItaly'smanylawsoverthecenturiesattemptingtorestrictcelebrationsandthewearingofmasks.CarnivalcelebrationsinVenicewerehaltedafterthecityfellunderAustriancontrolin1798,butwererevivedinthelate20thcentury.[citationneeded] Themonth-longCarnivalofViareggioischaracterizedmainlybyitsparadeoffloatsandmaskscaricaturingpopularfigures.In2001,thetownbuiltanew"Carnivalcitadel"dedicatedtoCarnivalpreparationsandentertainment.[145] TheCarnivalofIvreaisfamousforits"BattleoftheOranges"foughtwithfruitbetweenthepeopleonfootandthetroopsofthetyrantoncarts,torememberthewarsoftheMiddleAges.[146] InthemostpartoftheArchdioceseofMilan,theCarnivallastsfourmoredays,endingontheSaturdayafterAshWednesday,becauseoftheAmbrosianRite.[citationneeded] InSardinia,theCarnival(inSardinianlanguageCarrasecareorCarrasegare[147])variesgreatlyfromtheoneinthemainlandofItaly:duetoitscloserelationtotheDionysianRites[citationneeded],themajorityoftheSardiniancelebrationsfeaturesnotonlyfeastsandparadesbutalsocrudefertilityritessuchasbloodshedstofertilizetheland,[148]thedeathandtheresurrectionoftheCarnivalcharacters[149]andrepresentationsofviolenceandtorture.[148]ThetypicalcharactersoftheSardinianCarnivalarezoomorphicand/orandrogynous,suchastheMamuthonesandIssohadores[150]fromMamoiada,theBoesandMerdules[151]fromOttanaandmanymore.[152]TheCarnivaliscelebratedwithstreetperformances[153]thataretypicallyaccompaniedbySardiniandirgescalledattittidus,[154]meaningliterally"cryofababywhenthemotherdoesn'twantnursedhim/heranymore"(fromthewordtittameaningbreasts[155]).OtherparticularandimportantCarnivalinstancesinSardiniaaretheSartigliainOristanoandtheTempioPausaniaCarnival.[156] Lithuania[edit] Mainarticle:Užgavėnės UžgavėnėsisaLithuanianfestivalthattakesplaceonShroveTuesday.ItsnameinEnglishmeans"thetimebeforeLent".ThecelebrationcorrespondstoCarnivalholidaytraditions.[citationneeded] UžgavėnėsbeginsonthenightbeforeAshWednesday,whenaneffigyofwinter(usuallynamedMorė)isburnt.AmajorelementsymbolizesthedefeatofwinterintheNorthernHemisphere.ItisastagedbattlebetweenLašininis("porky")personifyingwinterandKanapinis("hempenman")personifyingspring.Devils,witches,goats,thegrimreaper,andotherjoyfulandfrighteningcharactersappearincostumesduringthecelebrations.[citationneeded] Eatingpancakesisanimportantpartofthecelebration.[furtherexplanationneeded][citationneeded] Luxembourg[edit] InLuxembourg,thepre-LentenholidayseasonisknownasFuesend.ThroughouttheGrand-Duchy,paradesandpartiesareheld.[citationneeded] PétangeisthehomeoftheGrand-Duchy'slargestpre-LentenKarnevalcelebration.Annuallyhostingacavalcadewithroughly1,200participantsandthousandofcelebrants,theofficialnameisKarnevalGemengPéitengor"Kagepe"(theinitialsinLuxembourgisharepronounced"Ka","Ge"and"Pe").[citationneeded] ThetownofRemichholdsathree-day-longcelebration,notablefortwospecialeventsinadditiontoitsparades.ThefirstistheStréimännchen,whichistheburningofamaleeffigyfromtheRemichBridgethatcrossestheMoselleRiverseparatingtheGrandDuchyfromGermany.TheStréimännchensymbolizestheburningawayofwinter.TheotherspecialeventattheRemichFuesendcelebrationsistheBuergbrennenorbonfirethatclosesthecelebration.[157] LikeRemich,thetownofEsch-sur-Alzetteholdsathree-daycelebration.OthermajorFuesendparadesinLuxembourgareheldinthetownsofDiekirchandSchifflange.[158] Malta[edit] CarnivalprocessioninVallettaonMalta CarnivalinValletta,Malta Mainarticle:MalteseCarnival CarnivalinMalta(Maltese:il-Karnivalta'Malta)wasintroducedtotheislandsbyGrandMasterPierodePontein1535.ItisheldduringtheweekleadinguptoAshWednesday,andtypicallyincludesmaskedballs,fancydresses,andgrotesquemaskcompetitions,lavishlate-nightparties,acolourful,ticker-tapeparadeofallegoricalfloatspresidedoverbyKingCarnival(Maltese:ir-Retal-Karnival),marchingbands,andcostumedrevellers.[159] ThelargestcelebrationtakesplaceinandaroundthecapitalcityofVallettaandFloriana;severalmore"spontaneous"Carnivalstakeplaceinmoreremoteareas.TheNadurCarnivalisnotableforitsdarkerthemes.In2005,theNadurCarnivalhostedthelargest-evergatheringofinternationalCarnivalorganizersfortheFECC'sglobalsummit.[citationneeded] Traditionaldancesincludetheparata,alightheartedre-enactmentofthe1565victoryoftheKnightsHospitallerovertheTurks,andan18th-centurycourtdanceknownasil-Maltija.[159]Carnivalfoodincludesperlini(multi-coloured,sugar-coatedalmonds)andtheprinjolata,whichisatoweringassemblyofspongecake,biscuits,almonds,andcitrusfruits,toppedwithcreamandpinenuts.[citationneeded] Netherlands[edit] Mainarticle:CarnivalintheNetherlands TheFightBetweenCarnivalandLent,PieterBruegel,1559 CarnivalintheNetherlandsiscalledCarnaval,Vastenavond("EveofLent")or,inLimburgish,Vastelaovend(j),andismostlycelebratedintraditionallyCatholicregions,particularlyinthesouthernprovincesofNorthBrabantandLimburg,butalsoinOverijssel,especiallyinTwente.WhileDutchCarnavalisofficiallycelebratedontheSundaythroughTuesdayprecedingAshWednesday,sincethe1970sthefeasthasgraduallystartedearlierandgenerallyincludesnowtheprecedingweekend.Althoughtraditionsvaryfromtowntotown,Dutchcarnavalusuallyincludesaparade,a"PrinceCarnival"pluscortège("Councilof11",sometimeswithaJesterorAdjutant),sometimesalsothehandingoverbythemayorofthesymbolickeysofthetowntoPrinceCarnival,theburningorburialofasymbolicfigure,apeasantwedding(boerenbruiloft),andeatingherring(haringhappen)onAshWednesday.[citationneeded] Twomainvariantscanbedistinguished:theRhinelandcarnaval,foundintheprovinceofLimburg,andtheBourgondischecarnaval,foundmainlyinNorthBrabant.Maastricht,Limburg'scapital,holdsastreetcarnavalthatfeatureselaboratecostumes.[160] Thefirstknowndocumentationdatesfromthelate8thcentury(Indiculussuperstitionumetpaganiarum),butCarnavalwasalreadymentionedduringtheFirstCouncilofNicaeain325andbyCaesariusofArles(470-542)around500CE.IntheNetherlandsitself,thefirstdocumentationisfoundin1383in's-Hertogenbosch.Theoldest-knownimagesofDutchCarnavalfestivitiesdatefrom1485,alsoin's-Hertogenbosch.[citationneeded] NormaldailylifecomestoastopforaboutaweekinthesouthernpartoftheNetherlandsduringthecarnival,withroadstemporaryblockedandmanylocalbusinessesclosedfortheweekasaresultofemployeeswhoareenmassetakingthedaysoffduringandthedayafterthecarnival.[161][162] NorthMacedonia[edit] ThemostpopularCarnivalsinNorthMacedoniaareinVevčaniandStrumica.[citationneeded] TheVevčaniCarnival(Macedonian:ВевчанскиKарневал,translatedVevchanskiKarneval)hasbeenheldforover1,400years,andtakesplaceon13and14January(NewYear'sEveandNewYear'sDaybytheoldcalendar).Thevillagebecomesalivetheatrewherecostumedactorsimproviseonthestreetsinrolessuchasthetraditional"AugusttheStupid".[163] TheStrumicaCarnival(Macedonian:СтрумичкиКарневал,translatedStrumichkiKarneval)hasbeenheldsinceatleast1670,whentheTurkishauthorEvlijaChelebijawrotewhilestayingthere,"IcameintoatownlocatedinthefoothillsofahighhillockandwhatIsawthatnightwasmaskedpeoplerunninghouse–to–house,withlaughter,screamandsong."TheCarnivaltookanorganizedformin1991;in1994,StrumicabecameamemberofFECCandin1998hostedtheXVIIIInternationalCongressofCarnivalCities.TheStrumicaCarnivalopensonaSaturdaynightatamaskedballwherethePrinceandPrincessarechosen;themainCarnivalnightisonTuesday,whenmaskedparticipants(includinggroupsfromabroad)competeinvarioussubjects.Asof2000,theFestivalofCaricaturesandAphorismshasbeenheldaspartofStrumica'sCarnivalcelebrations.[citationneeded] Poland[edit] Seealso:Slaviccarnival ThePolishCarnivalseasonincludesFatThursday(Polish:TłustyCzwartek),whenpączki(doughnuts)areeaten,andŚledzik(ShroveTuesday)orHerringDay.TheTuesdaybeforethestartofLentisalsooftencalledOstatki(literally"leftovers"),meaningthelastdaytopartybeforetheLentenseason.[citationneeded] ThetraditionalwaytocelebrateCarnivalisthekulig,ahorse-drawnsleighridethroughthesnow-coveredcountryside.Inmoderntimes,Carnivalisincreasinglyseenasanexcuseforintensivepartyingandhasbecomemorecommercialized,withstoresofferingCarnival-seasonsales.[citationneeded] Portugal[edit] SesimbraCarnival,Portugal CarnivalisCarnavalinPortugal,celebratedthroughoutthecountry,mostfamouslyinOvar,Sesimbra,Madeira,Loulé,Nazaré,andTorresVedras.CarnavalinPodenceandLazarimincorporatespagantraditionssuchasthecareto,whiletheTorresVedrascelebrationisprobablythemosttypical.[citationneeded] Azores[edit] OntheislandsoftheAzores,localclubsandCarnivalgroupscreatecolorfulandcreativecostumesthatjabatpoliticsorculture.[164] OnSãoMiguelIsland,Carnivalfeaturesstreetvendorssellingfrieddough,calledamalassada.Thefestivalonthebiggestislandstartsoffwithablacktiegrandball,followedbyLatinmusicatColiseuMicaelense.Achildren'sparadefillsthestreetsofPontaDelgadawithchildrenfromeachschooldistrictincostume.Amassiveparadecontinuespastmidnight,endinginfireworks.[164] Theeventincludestheatreperformancesanddances.Inthe"DançasdeEntrudo",hundredsofpeoplefollowthedancersaroundtheisland.Throughouttheshowthedancersactoutscenesfromdailylife.The"DancesdeCarnival"areallegoricalandcomedictalesactedoutinthestreets.ThelargestisinAngradoHeroísmo,withmorethan30groupsperforming.MorePortuguese-languagetheatricalperformancesoccurtherethananywhereelse.[164] FestivitiesendonAshWednesday,whenlocalssitdownforthe"Batatada"orpotatofeast,inwhichthemaindishissaltedcodwithpotatoes,eggs,mint,breadandwine.Residentsthenreturntothestreetsfortheburningofthe"Carnivalclown",endingtheseason.[164] Madeira[edit] AdancerintheCarnivalofMadeira,ontheisland'scapitalFunchal Mainarticle:CarnivalofMadeira OntheislandofMadeira,theisland'scapital,Funchal,wakesupontheFridaybeforeAshWednesdaytothesoundofbrassbandsandCarnivalparadesthroughoutdowntown.FestivitiescontinuewithconcertsandshowsinthePraçadoMunicípioforfiveconsecutivedays.ThemainCarnivalstreetparadetakesplaceonSaturdayevening,withthousandsofsambadancersfillingthestreets.ThetraditionalstreeteventtakesplaceonTuesday,featuringdaringcaricatures.[165] Arguably,Brazil'sCarnivalcouldbetracedtotheperiodofthePortugueseAgeofDiscoverieswhentheircaravelspassedregularlythroughMadeira,aterritorythatemphaticallycelebratedCarnival.[166][167] Ovar[edit] OvarCarnival,Portugal Mainarticle:CarnivalofOvar CarnivalinthetownofOvar,intheAveiroRegion,beganin1952andistheregion'slargestfestivity,representingalargeinvestmentandthemostimportanttouristiceventtothecity.Itisknownforitscreativedesigns,displayedintheCarnivalParade,whichfeaturestroupeswiththemedcostumesandmusic,rangingfromthetraditionaltopopculture.AlongwiththeCarnivalParade,therearefivenightsofpartying,finishingwiththefamous'Magicalnight'wherepeoplecomefromalloverthecountry,mostlywiththeirhandmadecostumes,onlytohavefunwiththelocals.[168] Otherregions[edit] InEstarreja,intheCentralregionofPortugal,thetown'sfirstreferencestoCarnivalwereinthe14thcentury,with"FlowerBattles",richlydecoratedfloatsthatparadedthroughthestreets.Atthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,thesefestivitiesendedwiththedeathsofitsmainpromoters,onlytoreappearagaininthe1960stobecomeoneofmanyimportantCarnivalfestivalsinPortugal.[citationneeded] IntheNorthernregionofPodence,childrenappearfromSundaytoTuesdaywithtinmasksandcolorfulmultilayeredcostumesmadefromred,greenandyellowwool.IntheCentralPortugaltownsofNelasandCanasdeSenhorim,Carnivalisanimportanttouristevent.NelasandCanasdeSenhorimhostfourfestiveparadesthatoffercolorfulandcreativecostumes:BairrodaIgrejaandCimodoPovoinNelasanddoPaçoanddoRossioinCanasdeSenhorim.[citationneeded] InLisbon,Carnivaloffersparades,dancesandfestivitiesfeaturingstarsfromPortugalandBrazil.TheLouresCarnivalcelebratesthecountry'sfolktraditions,includingtheenterrodobacalhauorburialofthecod,whichmarkstheendofCarnivalandthefestivities.[citationneeded] NorthofLisbonisthefamousTorresVedrasCarnival,describedasthe"mostPortugueseinPortugal".Thecelebrationhighlightisaparadeofcreativelydecoratedstreetcarsthatsatirizesocietyandpolitics.[citationneeded] OtherCentralPortugaltowns,suchasFátimaandLeiria,offercolorful,family-friendlycelebrations.Inthesetowns,everyonedressesupasifitwereHalloween.Childrenandadultswearmasks.[citationneeded] IntheAlgarveregion,severalresorttownsofferCarnivalparades.Besidesthethemedfloatsandcars,thefestivitiesinclude"samba"groups,bands,dances,andmusic.[169] InLazarim,acivilparishinthemunicipalityofLamego,celebrationsfollowthepagantraditionofRomanSaturnalias.Itcelebratesbyburningcolorfuleffigiesanddressinginhome-madecostumes.Locally-madewoodenmasksareworn.Themasksareeffigiesofmenandwomenwithhorns,butbothrolesareperformedbymen.Theyaredistinguishedbytheirclothes,withcaricatureattributesofbothmenandwomen.[citationneeded] TheLazarimCarnavalcycleencompassestwoperiods,thefirststartingonthefifthSundaybeforeQuinquagesimaSunday.Maskedfiguresandpeoplewearinglargesculptedheadswalkthroughthetown.Thelocalsfeastonmeats,aboveallpork.Thesecondcycle,heldonSundaysprecedingAshWednesday,incorporatesthetraditionoftheCompadresandComadres,withmenandwomendisplayinglight-heartedauthorityovertheother.[citationneeded] Overthefiveweeks,menpreparelargemaskedheadsandwomenraisefundstopayfortwomannequinsthatwillbesacrificedinapublicbonfire.ThisisakeyeventandisuniquetoPortugal.Duringthebonfire,agirlreadstheCompadre'swillandaboyreadstheComadre'swill.Theexecutorsofthewillarenamed,adonkeyissymbolicallydistributedtobothfemaleandmale"heirs",andthenthereisthefinalreckoninginwhichtheEntrudo,orCarnivaldoll,isburned.[citationneeded] Russia[edit] Mainarticle:Maslenitsa Seealso:Slaviccarnival BorisKustodiev'spaintingofMaslenitsa Maslenitsa(Масленица,alsocalled"PancakeWeek"or"CheeseWeek")isaRussianfolkholidaythatincorporatessomepagantraditions.ItiscelebratedduringthelastweekbeforeLent.Theessentialelementisbliny,Russianpancakes,popularlytakentosymbolizethesun.Roundandgolden,theyaremadefromtherichfoodsallowedthatweekbytheOrthodoxtraditions:butter,eggs,andmilk.(InthetraditionofOrthodoxLent,theconsumptionofmeatceasesoneweekbeforethatofmilkandeggs.)[citationneeded] Maslenitsaalsoincludesmasquerades,snowballfights,sledding,swingingonswings,andsleighrides.ThemascotisabrightlydressedstraweffigyofLadyMaslenitsa,formerlyknownasKostroma.ThecelebrationculminatesonSundayevening,whenLadyMaslenitsaisstrippedofherfineryandputtotheflamesofabonfire.[170][citationneeded] Slovakia[edit] Seealso:Slaviccarnival InSlovakia,theFašiangy(fašiang,fašangy)takesplacefromThreeKingsDay(Trajakráli)untilthemidnightbeforeAshWednesday(ŠkaredástredaorPopolcovástreda).Atthemidnightmarkingtheendoffašiangy,asymbolicburialceremonyforthecontrabassisperformed,becausemusicceasesforLent.[citationneeded] Slovenia[edit] KurentovanjeinPtuj,2019 TheSloveniannameforcarnivalispust.TheSloveniancountrysidedisplaysavarietyofdisguisedgroupsandindividualcharacters,amongwhichthemostpopularandcharacteristicistheKurent(plural:Kurenti),amonstrousanddemon-like,butfluffyfigure.ThemostsignificantfestivalisheldinPtuj(see:Kurentovanje).ItsspecialfeaturearetheKurentsthemselves,magicalcreaturesfromanotherworld,whovisitmajoreventsthroughoutthecountry,tryingtobanishthewinterandannouncespring'sarrival,fertility,andnewlifewithnoiseanddancing.TheoriginoftheKurentisamystery,andnotmuchisknownofthetimes,beliefs,orpurposesconnectedwithitsfirstappearance.Theoriginofthenameitselfisobscure.[citationneeded] TheCerknicaCarnivalisheraldedbyafigurecalled"Poganjič"carryingawhip.Intheprocession,organisedbythe"Pustsociety",amonstrouswitchnamedUršulaisdrivenfromthemountainSlivnica,tobeburnedatthestakeonAshWednesday.Uniquetothisregionisagroupofdormice,drivenbytheDevilandahugefire-breathingdragon.CerknoanditssurroundingareaareknownfortheLaufarji,Carnivalfigureswithartisticallycarvedwoodenmasks.[citationneeded] TheMaškarefromDobrepoljeusedtorepresentatriplecharacter:thebeautiful,theugly(amongwhichthemostimportantrepresentedbyanoldman,anoldwoman,ahunchback,andaKurent),andthenoble(imitatingtheurbanelite).[citationneeded] Themajorpartofthepopulation,especiallytheyoungandchildren,dressupinordinarynon-ethniccostumes,goingtoschool,work,andorganizedevents,whereprizesaregivenforthebestandmostoriginalcostumes.Costumedchildrensometimesgofromhousetohouseaskingfortreats.[citationneeded] Spain[edit] TheBurialoftheSardine,FranciscoGoya,c.1812 ArguablythemostfamousCarnivalsinSpainareSantaCruz,LasPalmas,Sitges,VilanovailaGeltrú,Tarragona,Águilas,Solsona,Cádiz,Badajoz,Bielsa(anancestralCarnivalcelebration),Plan,SanJuandePlan,Laza,Verín,Viana,andXinzodeLimia.[citationneeded] Oneoftheoldestpre-Indo-EuropeancarnivalinEuropetakesplaceinIturenandZubietainNavarreinlateJanuary/earlyFebruary.Thecarnivalsymbolisestheeternalstrugglebetweentheforcesofgoodandevil,lightanddarkness,winterandspring. Andalusia[edit] Mainarticle:CarnivalofCádiz AchoirsingingintheCarnivalofCádiz InCádiz,thecostumeswornareoftenrelatedtorecentnews,suchasthebirdfluepidemicin2006,duringwhichmanypeopleweredisguisedaschickens.ThefeelingofthisCarnivalisthesharpcriticism,thefunnyplayonwordsandtheimaginationinthecostumes,morethantheglamorousdressings.Itistraditionaltopaintthefacewithlipstickasahumblesubstituteofamask.[171] Themostfamousgroupsarethechirigotas,choirs,andcomparsas.Thechirigotasarewellknownwitty,satiricpopulargroupswhosingaboutpolitics,newtimes,andhouseholdtopics,wearingthesamecostume,whichtheyprepareforthewholeyear.TheChoirs(coros)arewidergroupsthatgoonopencartsthroughthestreetssingingwithanorchestraofguitarsandlutes.Theirsignaturepieceisthe"CarnivalTango",alternatingcomicalandseriousrepertory.ThecomparsasaretheseriouscounterpartofthechirigotainCádiz,andthepoeticlyricsandthecriticismaretheirmainingredients.Theyhaveamoreelaboratedpolyphonythatiseasilyrecognizablebythetypicalcountertenorvoice.[citationneeded] CanaryIslands[edit] Seealso:CarnivalofLasPalmasandCarnivalofSantaCruzdeTenerife CarnivalQueenofSantaCruzdeTenerife,2009 TheSantaCruzCarnivalis,withtheCarnivalofCadiz,themostimportantfestivalforSpanishtourismandSpain'slargestCarnival.[172][173][174][175]In1980,itwasdeclaredaFestivalTouristInternationalInterest.EveryFebruary,SantaCruzdeTenerife,thecapitalofthelargestoftheCanaryIslands,hoststheevent,attractingaroundamillionpeople.[176] In1980,itwasdeclaredaFestivalTouristInternationalInterest.[176]In1987,CubansingerCeliaCruzwithorchestraBillo'sCaracasBoysperformedatthe"CarnivalChicharrero",attendedby250,000people.ThiswasregisteredintheGuinnessBookofWorldRecordsasthelargestgatheringofpeopleinanoutdoorplazatoattendaconcert,arecordsheholdstoday.[citationneeded] TheCarnivalofLasPalmas(GranCanaria)hasadragqueen'sgalawhereajurychoosesawinner.[177] Catalonia[edit] VidalotisthelastnightofrevelrybeforeAshWednesdayinVilanova.WatercolorpaintingbyBradErickson. InCatalonia,peopledressinmasksandcostume(ofteninthemedgroups)andorganizeaweek-longseriesofparties,pranks,outlandishactivitiessuchasbedraces,streetdramassatirizingpublicfigures,andraucousprocessionstowelcomethearrivalofSaMajestatelReiCarnestoltes("HisMajestyKingCarnival"),knownbyvarioustitles,includingelReidelspoca-soltes("KingoftheCrackpots"),PrincepeterndeCornudella("EternalPrinceofCuckoldry"),Ducdeximplesicorrumputs("DukeofFoolsandtheCorrupt"),Marquèsdelabonamamella("Marquisofthelovelybreast"),Comtedetotselsbarruts("CountoftheInsolent"),BaródelesCalaverades("BaronofNocturnalDebaucheries"),andSenyordel'altPlàtanflorit,delsbarraquersigamberradesiartistad'honordaltdelllit("LordoftheTallBananainBloom,oftheVoyeursandPunksandtheArtistofHonorupontheBed").[178] TheKingpresidesoveraperiodofmisruleinwhichconventionalsocialrulesmaybebrokenandrecklessbehaviorisencouraged.Festivitiesareheldintheopenair,beginningwithacercavila,aritualprocessionthroughoutthetowntocalleveryonetoattend.Ruesofmaskedrevelersdancealongside.OnThursday,DijousGras(FatThursday)iscelebrated,alsocalled'omeletteday'(eldiadelatruita),onwhichcoques(dellardons,butifarrad'ou,butifarra),andomelettesareeaten.ThefestivitiesendonAshWednesdaywithelaboratefuneralritualsmarkingthedeathofKingCarnival,whoistypicallyburnedonapyreinwhatiscalledthe"burialofthesardine"(enterramentdelasardina),or,inVilanova,asl'enterro.[179] TheCarnivalofVilanovailaGeltrúhasadocumentedhistoryfrom1790[180]andisoneoftherichestinthevarietyofitsactsandrituals.Itadoptsanancientstyleinwhichsatire,thegrotesquebody[3](particularlycross-dressinganddisplaysofexaggeratedbellies,noses,andphalli)andaboveall,activeparticipationarevaluedoverglamorous,media-friendlyspectaclesthatVilanovinsmockas"thighsandfeathers".[181]ItisbestknownforLesComparses(heldonSunday),atumultuousdanceinwhichthousandsofdancersintraditionaldressesandMantonsdeManila(Manilashawls),organizedintogroupsofcouplesmarchinthestreetforminglineswhilethrowingtonsofhardcandiesatoneanother.Vilanoviniansorganizeseveralritualsduringtheweek.OnDijousGras,VilanovinchildrenareexcusedfromschooltoparticipateintheMerengada,aday-longsceneofeatingandfightingwithsticky,sweetmeringuewhileadultshaveameringuebattleatmidnightatthehistoricPlaçadelesCols. ChildrenbecomecoveredinmeringueduringDijousGras.OnFridaycitizensarecalledtoaparadeforthearrivalofKingCarnivalcalledl'Arrivothatchangeseveryyear.Itincludesaraucousprocessionoffloatsanddancerslampooningcurrenteventsorpublicfiguresandabitinglysatiricsermon(elsermo)deliveredbytheKinghimself.OnSaturday,theKing'sprocessionandhisconcubinesscandalizethetownwiththeirsexualbehavior,themysteriousMoixoFoguer(Little-Bird-Bonfire)isshownaccompaniedbytheXerraire(jabberer)whotrytoconvincethecrowdaboutthewondersofthismightybirdhecarriesinabox(whoisinfactanakedpersoncoveredinfeathers).[182]andotheritemssuchassportactsandbarbecuesinthestreets,thetalking-danceoftheMismatchedCouples(BalldeMalcasats),thechildren'sKingCaramelwhosemassivebelly,longnoseandsausage-likehairhintathisinsatiableappetites,orthedebauchedNitdelsMascarotsdance. TheBalldeMalcasats(DanceoftheMismatchedCouples)isasatirictalking-dancetraditionaltoCarnavalinVilanova. AfterSunday,vilanovinianscontinueitsCarnivalwiththechildren'spartyVidalet,thesatiricalchorusofCarnestoltessongsandthelastnightofrevelry,theVidalot.FortheKing'sfuneral,peopledressinelaboratemourningcostume,manyofthemcross-dressingmenwhocarrybouquetsofphallicvegetables.Inthefuneralhouse,thebodyoftheKingissurroundedbyweepingconcubines,cryingoverthelossofsexualpleasurebroughtaboutbyhisdeath.TheKing'sbodyiscarriedtothePlaçadelaVilawhereasatiriceulogyisdeliveredwhilethetownspeopleeatsaltygrilledsardineswithbreadandwine,suggestingthesymboliccannibalismofthecommunionritual.Finally,amidrocketsandexplosions,theKing'sbodyisburnedinamassivepyre.[179][180] "Ploranyeres"weepforthedeathofHisMajestyandthelossofpleasure. DonkeysofSolsona,hunginthetowerbell. CarnavaldeSolsonatakesplaceinSolsona,Lleida.Itisoneofthelongest;freeeventsinthestreetsandnightlyconcertsrunformorethanaweek.TheCarnivalisknownforalegendthatexplainshowadonkeywashungatthetowerbell−becausetheanimalwantedtoeatgrassthatgrewonthetopofthetower.Tocelebratethislegend,localshangastuffeddonkeyatthetowerthat"pisses"abovetheexcitedcrowdusingawaterpump.ThiseventisthemostimportantandtakesplaceonSaturdaynight.Forthisreason,theinhabitantsarecalledmatarrucs("donkeykillers").[183] "Comparses"groupsorganizefreeactivities.Thesegroupsoffriendscreateandpersonalizeauniformedsuittowearduringthefestivities.[citationneeded] InSitges,specialfeastsincludexatonades(xatóisatraditionallocalsaladofthePenedèscoast)servedwithomelettes.TwoimportantmomentsaretheRuadelaDisbauxa(DebaucheryParade)onSundaynightandtheRuadel'Extermini(ExterminationParade)onTuesdaynight.Around40floatsdrawmorethan2,500participants.[citationneeded] Tarragonahasoneoftheregion'smostcompleteritualsequences.TheeventsstartwiththebuildingofahugebarrelandendswithitsburningwiththeeffigiesoftheKingandQueen.OnSaturday,themainparadetakesplacewithmaskedgroups,zoomorphicfigures,music,andpercussionbands,andgroupswithfireworks(thedevils,thedragon,theox,thefemaledragon).Carnivalgroupsstandoutfortheirclothesfullofelegance,showingbrilliantexamplesoffabriccrafts,attheSaturdayandSundayparades.About5,000peoplearemembersoftheparadegroups.[citationneeded] ValencianCommunity[edit] OneofthemostimportantSpanishCarnivalFestivalsiscelebratedinVinaròs,asmalltownsituatedinthenorthernpartoftheprovinceofCastellón,ValencianCommunity. TheCarnivalFestivalinVinaròshasbeendeclaredofRegionalTouristicInterestandin2017,thisoutstandingandancientshowcelebrates35yearsofHistory.TheCarnivalFestivalinVinaròsbecameaforbiddencelebrationduringtheSpanishCivilWarbutafterthedictatorship,thepartyregainedimportancewiththedemocracy'sarrival. EveryyearinFebruary,fortydaysbeforetheSpanishCuaresma,thirty-three"comparsas"gosinging,dancingandwalkingdownthestreetsinagreatcostumes’paradeinVinaròs.Inaddition,manyotherfestive,culturalandmusicalactivitiesofallagestakeplace,suchasanepicbattleofconfettiandflour,funnykaraokecontestsortheso-called"EntierrodelaSardina"(BurialoftheSardine). Nevertheless,themostimportanteventisthegalaperformanceoftheCarnival'sQueen.Inthisbreathtakingshow,itiselectedtheQueenoftheCarnival,themajorrepresentativeoftheCarnivalinVinaròsallyearround.[184] Turkey[edit] Mainarticle:Baklahorani Foralmostfivecenturies,localGreekcommunitiesthroughoutIstanbulcelebratedCarnivalwithweeksofbawdyparades,lavishballs,andstreetparties.ThiscontinuedforweeksbeforeLent.BaklahoranitookplaceonShroveMonday,thelastdayofthecarnivalseason.TheeventwasledbytheGreekOrthodoxcommunity,butthecelebrationswerepublicandinter-communal.ThefinalcelebrationwassitedintheKurtuluşdistrict.[185]In2010,thefestivalwasrevived.[186] Seealso[edit] Adloyada Careto CarnivalofBasel Carny CirqueduSoleil CologneCarnival CultureofPopularLaughter Fair FeastofFools FederationofEuropeanCarnivalCities MardiGras MardiGrasinMobile,Alabama NewOrleansMardiGras Sitalsasthi Narrenmarsch Notes[edit] 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References[edit] Wikisourcehasthetextofthe1911EncyclopædiaBritannicaarticle"Carnival". GiampaolodiCocco(2007)AlleoriginidelCarnevale:Mysteriaisiaciemiticattolici(Florence:Pontecorboli) Valantasis,Richard(2000)Religionsoflateantiquityinpractice McGowan,ChrisandPessanha,Ricardo."TheBrazilianSound:Samba,BossaNovaandthePopularMusicofBrazil."1998.2ndedition.TempleUniversityPress.ISBN 1-56639-545-3. JeroenDewulf(2017)FromtheKingdomofKongotoCongoSquare:KongoDancesandtheOriginsoftheMardiGrasIndians(Lafayette,LA:UniversityofLouisianaatLafayettePress) vteCarnivalaroundtheworldAsia Indonesia Solo Jember Jakarta Europe Austria Belgium Aalst Binche Croatia Denmark England France Nice Paris Belarus,Russia,Ukraine Germany Cologne Mainz Greece Hungary Italy Venice Viareggio Ivrea Lithuania Malta Netherlands Portugal Madeira Ovar Spain Cádiz LasPalmas SantaCruz Switzerland Basel Turkey NorthAmerica Canada Ottawa QuebecCity Toronto México UnitedStates Mobile NewOrleans NewYorkCity Caribbean Antigua Bahamas Barbados CaymanIslands Cuba Dominica DominicanRepublic Haiti Nevis PuertoRico(Ponce) TrinidadandTobago SouthAmerica Argentina BuenosAires Murga Bolivia Oruro Brazil Bahia Rio Colombia Barranquilla NegrosyBlancos FrenchGuiana Cayenne Guyana Uruguay Oceania Australia  Catholicismportal  Worldportal vteLiturgicalyearoftheCatholicChurchOrdinaryFormoftheRomanRiteoftheLatinChurch(1969Calendar)Advent Sundays 1st 2nd 3rd 4th ImmaculateConception December17to23 ChristmasSeason Christmas HolyFamily Mary,MotherofGod Epiphany BaptismoftheLord OrdinaryTime PresentationoftheLord Lent AshWednesday Sundays 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th SaintJoseph Annunciation PalmSunday HolyWeek PaschalTriduum HolyThursday ChrismMass MassoftheLord'sSupper GoodFriday HolySaturday EasterVigil EasterSeason EasterSunday Octave DivineMercySunday Sundays 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Ascension Pentecost OrdinaryTime TrinitySunday CorpusChristi SacredHeart Visitation SaintJohntheBaptist SaintsPeterandPaul Transfiguration Assumption NativityofMary ExaltationoftheCross AllSaints'Day AllSouls'Day PresentationofMary ChristtheKing TridentineMassoftheRomanRiteoftheLatinChurch(1960Calendar)Advent Sundays 1st 2nd 3rd 4th RorateMass ImmaculateConception GreaterFerias WinterEmberDays ChristmasSeason Christmas OctaveDayofChristmas HolyNameofJesus EpiphanySeason Epiphany HolyFamily BaptismoftheLord PurificationofMaryP LentPre-Lent Septuagesima Sexagesima Quinquagesima Lent AshWednesday Sundays 1st 2nd 3rd 4th SpringEmberDays SaintJoseph Annunciation Passiontide PassionSunday PalmSundayP HolyWeekP PaschalTriduum Tenebrae HolyThursday ChrismMass MassoftheLord'sSupper GoodFriday HolySaturday EasterVigil EasterSeason EasterSundayP Octave SundaysafterEaster 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th RogationDaysP AscensionP PentecostSeason Pentecost SummerEmberDays TrinitySunday CorpusChristiP SacredHeart SaintJohntheBaptist SaintsPeterandPaul PreciousBlood Visitation Transfiguration Assumption NativityofMary ExaltationoftheCrossP AutumnEmberDays MaternityofMary ChristtheKing AllSaints'Day AllSouls'Day PresentationofMary Legend P=OrdinaryProcessionaccordingtotheRomanRitual Legend Italicfontmarksthe10holydaysofobligationintheuniversalcalendarwhichdonotnormallyfallonaSunday. Oldercalendars 1955 pre-1955 Tridentine Liturgicalcolours Ranking Computus Eastercycle  Catholicismportal vtePartytopicsSortedbyoccasions,purposesorattributesTypesWedding-related Bachelorparty Bacheloretteparty Bridalshower Engagementparty Weddingreception Eidal-Adha Eidal-Fitr Banquets Eidcuisine Statebanquet Ball Debutanteball Huntball Symposium Houseparties Familyreunion Cocktailparty Housewarmingparty Sleepover LANparty Politicalhouseparty Rentparty PublicpartiesFestivals Holidays Springbreak MischiefNight Artsfestival Filmawardsseasons Religiousfestival Christmas Carnival Feasts Foodfestival Harvestfestival Seealso:Socialseason(UnitedKingdom) Fairs World'sfair Statefair Countyfair Tradefair Picnic Blockparty Subwayparty Tailgateparty Children'sparty Babyshower Classreunion Costumeparty Masqeradeparty Dragparty Togaparty Nakedparty Crayfishparty Cuddleparty Danceparty Prom Homecoming Foamparty Hurricaneparty Kittyparty Pamperparty Pizzaparty Quietparty Stoplightparty Teaparty EquipmentClothingWesterndresscodes Formal Whitetie Morningdress Semi-formal Blacktie Blackloungesuit Informal Suit Casual Weddingdress Contemporary Bridalcrown Dress Eveninggown Ballgown Debutante Operagloves Cocktaildress Garters Casual Balloon Balloonmodelling Confetti Cottoncandy Deelybobber Glowstick Grouchoglasses Partyhat NewYear'sglasses Partybus Partyhorn Partypopper Serpentinestreamer  Societyportal Media Category AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Latvia Japan Other HistoricalDictionaryofSwitzerland Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carnival&oldid=1081176823" Categories:CarnivalParadesWesternChristianityStreetcultureMasqueradeceremoniesHiddencategories:Wikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromthe1911EncyclopaediaBritannicawithWikisourcereferenceCS1Italian-languagesources(it)WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksArticlescontainingLatin-languagetextCS1Spanish-languagesources(es)CS1Dutch-languagesources(nl)CS1maint:archivedcopyastitleAllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromAugust2019ArticleswithpermanentlydeadexternallinksArticlescontainingSpanish-languagetextArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromJune2016CS1German-languagesources(de)CS1Greek-languagesources(el)ArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromDecember2018ArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromApril2020AllarticleslackingreliablereferencesArticleslackingreliablereferencesfromApril2019CS1EuropeanSpanish-languagesources(es)ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsedmydatesfromMarch2019ArticlestobesplitfromJune2021AllarticlestobesplitAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromMay2020ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJanuary2017ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromDecember2019AllarticleswithunidentifiedwordsArticleswithunidentifiedwordsfromAugust2020ArticlescontainingBosnian-languagetextArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromFebruary2013ArticlescontainingGreek-languagetextArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJanuary2019ArticlescontainingSardinian-languagetextWikipediaarticlesneedingclarificationfromJanuary2017ArticlescontainingLimburgish-languagetextArticlescontainingRussian-languagetextArticlescontainingCatalan-languagetextArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithLNBidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiersArticleswithHDSidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages AlemannischالعربيةAragonésAsturianuAymararuবাংলাБашҡортсаБеларускаяБългарскиBoarischBosanskiCatalàЧӑвашлаCymraegDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEstremeñuEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskFurlanGaeilgeगोंयचीकोंकणी/GõychiKonknni한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiIdoBahasaIndonesiaInterlinguaInterlingueItalianoעבריתJawaKaszëbscziҚазақшаKriyòlgwiyannenКыргызчаLatinaLatviešuLietuviųLimburgsLombardMagyarМакедонскиMirandésNederlandsNedersaksies日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskNouormandOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀPälzischPapiamentuPolskiPortuguêsRipoarischRomânăRunaSimiРусскийSicilianuSimpleEnglishСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوVènetoTiếngViệtWalonWinaray吴语粵語中文 Editlinks