Translation - Wikipedia

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a ... Translation FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Transferofthemeaningofsomethinginonelanguageintoanother Thisarticleisaboutlanguagetranslation.Forotheruses,seeTranslation(disambiguation). "Translator"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeTranslator(disambiguation). ForarticletranslationsinWikipedia,seeWikipedia:Translation. NottobeconfusedwithTransliteration. KingCharlesVtheWisecommissionsatranslationofAristotle.Firstsquareshowshisorderingthetranslation;secondsquare,thetranslationbeingmade.Thirdandfourthsquaresshowthefinishedtranslationbeingbroughtto,andthenpresentedto,theKing. PartofaseriesonTranslation Types Legal Literary Bible Quran Kural Linguisticvalidation Medical Regulatory Technical Interpretation Cultural Word-for-word Sense-for-sense Homophonic Theory Translationstudies Skopostheory Translationproject Translationcriticism Dynamicandformalequivalence Contrastivelinguistics Technologies CAT Machinetranslation Mobiletranslation Translationmanagementsystem Dubbing Subtitling Pre-editing Postediting Multimediatranslation Localization Glocalization Internationalizationandlocalization Languagelocalization Videogamelocalization Dublocalization Websitelocalization Softwarelocalization Institutional Associations Awards Organizations Schools Relatedtopics Transcription Transliteration Videorelayservice(VRS) Telephoneinterpreting Languagebarrier Fantranslation Fansub Fandub Scanlation Journalistictranslation Booksandmagazinesontranslation Bibletranslationsbylanguage Translatedbooks Listofmosttranslatedworks Translators Kuraltranslationsbylanguage vte Translationisthecommunicationofthemeaningofasource-languagetextbymeansofanequivalenttarget-languagetext.[1]TheEnglishlanguagedrawsaterminologicaldistinction(whichdoesnotexistineverylanguage)betweentranslating(awrittentext)andinterpreting(oralorsignedcommunicationbetweenusersofdifferentlanguages);underthisdistinction,translationcanbeginonlyaftertheappearanceofwritingwithinalanguagecommunity. Atranslatoralwaysrisksinadvertentlyintroducingsource-languagewords,grammar,orsyntaxintothetarget-languagerendering.Ontheotherhand,such"spill-overs"havesometimesimportedusefulsource-languagecalquesandloanwordsthathaveenrichedtargetlanguages.Translators,includingearlytranslatorsofsacredtexts,havehelpedshapetheverylanguagesintowhichtheyhavetranslated.[2] Becauseofthelaboriousnessofthetranslationprocess,sincethe1940seffortshavebeenmade,withvaryingdegreesofsuccess,toautomatetranslationortomechanicallyaidthehumantranslator.[3]Morerecently,theriseoftheInternethasfosteredaworld-widemarketfortranslationservicesandhasfacilitated"languagelocalisation".[4] Contents 1Etymology 2Theories 2.1Westerntheory 2.2Othertraditions 2.2.1NearEast 2.2.2Asia 2.2.3Islamicworld 3Fidelityandtransparency 3.1Equivalence 3.2Back-translation 3.3Sourceandtargetlanguages 3.3.1Sourceandtargettexts 4Translators 4.1Interpreting 4.2Sworntranslation 4.3Telephone 4.4Internet 4.5Computerassist 5Machinetranslation 6Literarytranslation 6.1History 6.2Moderntranslation 6.3Poetry 6.4Booktitles 6.5Plays 6.6Chineseliterature 6.7Sungtexts 6.8Religioustexts 6.9Experimentalliterature 6.10Sciencefiction 7Technicaltranslation 8Seealso 9Notes 10References 11Bibliography 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks Etymology[edit] RosettaStone,aseculariconfortheartoftranslation[5] TheEnglishword"translation"derivesfromtheLatinwordtranslatio,[6]whichcomesfromtrans,"across"+ferre,"tocarry"or"tobring"(-latiointurncomingfromlatus,thepastparticipleofferre).Thustranslatiois"acarryingacross"or"abringingacross"–inthiscase,ofatextfromonelanguagetoanother.[7] SomeSlaviclanguagesandtheGermaniclanguages(otherthanDutchandAfrikaans)havecalquedtheirwordsfortheconceptof"translation"ontranslatio,substitutingtheirrespectiveSlavicorGermanicrootwordsfortheLatinroots.[7][8][a][9]TheremainingSlaviclanguagesinsteadcalquedtheirwordsfor"translation"fromanalternativeLatinword,trāductiō,itselfderivedfromtrādūcō("toleadacross"or"tobringacross")—fromtrans("across")+dūcō,("tolead"or"tobring").[7] TheWestandEastSlaviclanguages(exceptforRussian)adoptedthetranslātiōpattern,whereasRussianandtheSouthSlaviclanguagesadoptedthetrāductiōpattern.TheRomancelanguages,derivingdirectlyfromLatin,didnotneedtocalquetheirequivalentwordsfor"translation";instead,theysimplyadaptedthesecondofthetwoalternativeLatinwords,trāductiō.,[7] TheAncientGreektermfor"translation",μετάφρασις(metaphrasis,"aspeakingacross"),hassuppliedEnglishwith"metaphrase"(a"literal",or"word-for-word",translation)—ascontrastedwith"paraphrase"("asayinginotherwords",fromπαράφρασις,paraphrasis).[7]"Metaphrase"corresponds,inoneofthemorerecentterminologies,to"formalequivalence";and"paraphrase",to"dynamicequivalence".[10] Strictlyspeaking,theconceptofmetaphrase—of"word-for-wordtranslation"—isanimperfectconcept,becauseagivenwordinagivenlanguageoftencarriesmorethanonemeaning;andbecauseasimilargivenmeaningmayoftenberepresentedinagivenlanguagebymorethanoneword.Nevertheless,"metaphrase"and"paraphrase"maybeusefulasidealconceptsthatmarktheextremesinthespectrumofpossibleapproachestotranslation.[b] Theories[edit] Westerntheory[edit] JohnDryden Discussionsofthetheoryandpracticeoftranslationreachbackintoantiquityandshowremarkablecontinuities.TheancientGreeksdistinguishedbetweenmetaphrase(literaltranslation)andparaphrase.ThisdistinctionwasadoptedbyEnglishpoetandtranslatorJohnDryden(1631–1700),whodescribedtranslationasthejudiciousblendingofthesetwomodesofphrasingwhenselecting,inthetargetlanguage,"counterparts,"orequivalents,fortheexpressionsusedinthesourcelanguage: When[words]appear...literallygraceful,itwereaninjurytotheauthorthattheyshouldbechanged.Butsince...whatisbeautifulinone[language]isoftenbarbarous,naysometimesnonsense,inanother,itwouldbeunreasonabletolimitatranslatortothenarrowcompassofhisauthor'swords:'tisenoughifhechooseoutsomeexpressionwhichdoesnotvitiatethesense.[7] Cicero Drydencautioned,however,againstthelicenseof"imitation",i.e.,ofadaptedtranslation:"Whenapaintercopiesfromthelife...hehasnoprivilegetoalterfeaturesandlineaments..."[10] Thisgeneralformulationofthecentralconceptoftranslation—equivalence—isasadequateasanythathasbeenproposedsinceCiceroandHorace,who,in1st-century-BCERome,famouslyandliterallycautionedagainsttranslating"wordforword"(verbumproverbo).[10] Despiteoccasionaltheoreticaldiversity,theactualpracticeoftranslationhashardlychangedsinceantiquity.ExceptforsomeextrememetaphrasersintheearlyChristianperiodandtheMiddleAges,andadaptersinvariousperiods(especiallypre-ClassicalRome,andthe18thcentury),translatorshavegenerallyshownprudentflexibilityinseekingequivalents—"literal"wherepossible,paraphrasticwherenecessary—fortheoriginalmeaningandothercrucial"values"(e.g.,style,verseform,concordancewithmusicalaccompanimentor,infilms,withspeecharticulatorymovements)asdeterminedfromcontext.[10] SamuelJohnson Ingeneral,translatorshavesoughttopreservethecontextitselfbyreproducingtheoriginalorderofsememes,andhencewordorder—whennecessary,reinterpretingtheactualgrammaticalstructure,forexample,byshiftingfromactivetopassivevoice,orviceversa.Thegrammaticaldifferencesbetween"fixed-word-order"languages[12](e.g.English,French,German)and"free-word-order"languages[13](e.g.,Greek,Latin,Polish,Russian)havebeennoimpedimentinthisregard.[10]Theparticularsyntax(sentence-structure)characteristicsofatext'ssourcelanguageareadjustedtothesyntacticrequirementsofthetargetlanguage. MartinLuther Whenatargetlanguagehaslackedtermsthatarefoundinasourcelanguage,translatorshaveborrowedthoseterms,therebyenrichingthetargetlanguage.Thanksingreatmeasuretotheexchangeofcalquesandloanwordsbetweenlanguages,andtotheirimportationfromotherlanguages,therearefewconceptsthatare"untranslatable"amongthemodernEuropeanlanguages.[10]Agreaterproblem,however,istranslatingtermsrelatingtoculturalconceptsthathavenoequivalentinthetargetlanguage.[14]Forfullcomprehension,suchsituationsrequiretheprovisionofagloss. Generally,thegreaterthecontactandexchangethathaveexistedbetweentwolanguages,orbetweenthoselanguagesandathirdone,thegreateristheratioofmetaphrasetoparaphrasethatmaybeusedintranslatingamongthem.However,duetoshiftsinecologicalnichesofwords,acommonetymologyissometimesmisleadingasaguidetocurrentmeaninginoneortheotherlanguage.Forexample,theEnglishactualshouldnotbeconfusedwiththecognateFrenchactuel("present","current"),thePolishaktualny("present","current,""topical","timely","feasible"),[15]theSwedishaktuell("topical","presentlyofimportance"),theRussianактуальный("urgent","topical")ortheDutchactueel("current"). Thetranslator'sroleasabridgefor"carryingacross"valuesbetweencultureshasbeendiscussedatleastsinceTerence,the2nd-century-BCERomanadapterofGreekcomedies.Thetranslator'sroleis,however,bynomeansapassive,mechanicalone,andsohasalsobeencomparedtothatofanartist.ThemaingroundseemstobetheconceptofparallelcreationfoundincriticssuchasCicero.Drydenobservedthat"Translationisatypeofdrawingafterlife..."ComparisonofthetranslatorwithamusicianoractorgoesbackatleasttoSamuelJohnson'sremarkaboutAlexanderPopeplayingHomeronaflageolet,whileHomerhimselfusedabassoon.[15] JohannGottfriedHerder Iftranslationbeanart,itisnoeasyone.Inthe13thcentury,RogerBaconwrotethatifatranslationistobetrue,thetranslatormustknowbothlanguages,aswellasthesciencethatheistotranslate;andfindingthatfewtranslatorsdid,hewantedtodoawaywithtranslationandtranslatorsaltogether.[16] IgnacyKrasicki ThetranslatoroftheBibleintoGerman,MartinLuther(1483–1546),iscreditedwithbeingthefirstEuropeantopositthatonetranslatessatisfactorilyonlytowardhisownlanguage.L.G.KellystatesthatsinceJohannGottfriedHerderinthe18thcentury,"ithasbeenaxiomatic"thatonetranslatesonlytowardhisownlanguage.[17] Compoundingthedemandsonthetranslatoristhefactthatnodictionaryorthesauruscaneverbeafullyadequateguideintranslating.TheScottishhistorianAlexanderTytler,inhisEssayonthePrinciplesofTranslation(1790),emphasizedthatassiduousreadingisamorecomprehensiveguidetoalanguagethanaredictionaries.Thesamepoint,butalsoincludinglisteningtothespokenlanguage,hadearlier,in1783,beenmadebythePolishpoetandgrammarianOnufryKopczyński.[18] Thetranslator'sspecialroleinsocietyisdescribedinaposthumous1803essayby"Poland'sLaFontaine",theRomanCatholicPrimateofPoland,poet,encyclopedist,authorofthefirstPolishnovel,andtranslatorfromFrenchandGreek,IgnacyKrasicki: [T]ranslation...isinfactanartbothestimableandverydifficult,andthereforeisnotthelaborandportionofcommonminds;[it]shouldbe[practiced]bythosewhoarethemselvescapableofbeingactors,whentheyseegreateruseintranslatingtheworksofothersthanintheirownworks,andholdhigherthantheirownglorytheservicethattheyrendertheircountry.[19] Othertraditions[edit] DuetoWesterncolonialismandculturaldominanceinrecentcenturies,Westerntranslationtraditionshavelargelyreplacedothertraditions.TheWesterntraditionsdrawonbothancientandmedievaltraditions,andonmorerecentEuropeaninnovations. Thoughearlierapproachestotranslationarelesscommonlyusedtoday,theyretainimportancewhendealingwiththeirproducts,aswhenhistoriansviewancientormedievalrecordstopiecetogethereventswhichtookplaceinnon-Westernorpre-Westernenvironments.Also,thoughheavilyinfluencedbyWesterntraditionsandpracticedbytranslatorstaughtinWestern-styleeducationalsystems,ChineseandrelatedtranslationtraditionsretainsometheoriesandphilosophiesuniquetotheChinesetradition. NearEast[edit] Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(March2012) TraditionsoftranslatingmaterialamongthelanguagesofancientEgypt,Mesopotamia,Assyria(Syriaclanguage),Anatolia,andIsrael(Hebrewlanguage)gobackseveralmillennia.ThereexistpartialtranslationsoftheSumerianEpicofGilgamesh(c.2000BCE)intoSouthwestAsianlanguagesofthesecondmillenniumBCE.[20] Anearlyexampleofabilingualdocumentisthe1274BCETreatyofKadeshbetweentheancientEgyptianandHittieempires. TheBabylonianswerethefirsttoestablishtranslationasaprofession.[21] ThefirsttranslationsofGreekandCoptictextsintoArabic,possiblyindirectlyfromSyriactranslations,[22]seemtohavebeenundertakenasearlyasthelateseventhcenturyCE.[23] ThesecondAbbasidCaliphfundedatranslationbureauinBaghdadintheeighthcentury.[24] Baytal-Hikma,thefamouslibraryinBaghdad,wasgenerouslyendowedandthecollectionincludedbooksinmanylanguages,anditbecamealeadingcentreforthetranslationofworksfromantiquityintoArabic,withitsownTranslationDepartment.[25] TranslationsintoEuropeanlanguagesfromArabicversionsoflostGreekandRomantextsbeganinthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury,whenthebenefitstobegainedfromtheArabs’knowledgeoftheclassicaltextswererecognisedbyEuropeanscholars,particularlyaftertheestablishmentoftheEscueladeTraductoresdeToledoinSpain. Caxton’s‘DictesorSayengisofthePhilosophres‘(SayingsofthePhilosophers,1477),wasatranslationintoEnglishofaneleventhcenturyEgyptiantext,whichreachedEnglishthroughitstranslationintoLatinandthenFrench. ThetranslationofforeignworksforpublishinginArabicwasrevivedbytheestablishmentoftheMadrasaal-Alsum(‘SchoolofTongues’)inEgyptin1813CE.[26] Asia[edit] Furtherinformation:Chinesetranslationtheory BuddhistDiamondSutra,translatedintoChinesebyKumārajīva:world'soldestknowndatedprintedbook(868CE) ThereisaseparatetraditionoftranslationinSouth,SoutheastandEastAsia(primarilyoftextsfromtheIndianandChinesecivilizations),connectedespeciallywiththerenderingofreligious,particularlyBuddhist,textsandwiththegovernanceoftheChineseempire.ClassicalIndiantranslationischaracterizedbylooseadaptation,ratherthantheclosertranslationmorecommonlyfoundinEurope;andChinesetranslationtheoryidentifiesvariouscriteriaandlimitationsintranslation. IntheEastAsiansphereofChineseculturalinfluence,moreimportantthantranslationpersehasbeentheuseandreadingofChinesetexts,whichalsohadsubstantialinfluenceontheJapanese,KoreanandVietnameselanguages,withsubstantialborrowingsofChinesevocabularyandwritingsystem.NotableistheJapanesekanbun,asystemforglossingChinesetextsforJapanesespeakers. ThoughIndianizedstatesinSoutheastAsiaoftentranslatedSanskritmaterialintothelocallanguages,theliterateelitesandscribesmorecommonlyusedSanskritastheirprimarylanguageofcultureandgovernment. PerryLink SomespecialaspectsoftranslatingfromChineseareillustratedinPerryLink'sdiscussionoftranslatingtheworkoftheTangDynastypoetWangWei(699–759CE).[27] SomeoftheartofclassicalChinesepoetry[writesLink]mustsimplybesetasideasuntranslatable.TheinternalstructureofChinesecharactershasabeautyofitsown,andthecalligraphyinwhichclassicalpoemswerewrittenisanotherimportantbutuntranslatabledimension.SinceChinesecharactersdonotvaryinlength,andbecausethereareexactlyfivecharactersperlineinapoemlike[theonethatEliotWeinbergerdiscussesin19WaysofLookingatWangWei(withMoreWays)],anotheruntranslatablefeatureisthatthewrittenresult,hungonawall,presentsarectangle.Translatorsintolanguageswhosewordlengthsvarycanreproducesuchaneffectonlyattheriskoffatalawkwardness.... Anotherimponderableishowtoimitatethe1-2,1-2-3rhythminwhichfive-syllablelinesinclassicalChinesepoemsnormallyareread.Chinesecharactersarepronouncedinonesyllableapiece,soproducingsuchrhythmsinChineseisnothardandtheresultsareunobtrusive;butanyimitationinaWesternlanguageisalmostinevitablystiltedanddistracting.EvenlesstranslatablearethepatternsoftonearrangementinclassicalChinesepoetry.Eachsyllable(character)belongstooneoftwocategoriesdeterminedbythepitchcontourinwhichitisread;inaclassicalChinesepoemthepatternsofalternationofthetwocategoriesexhibitparallelismandmirroring.[28] Oncetheuntranslatableshavebeensetaside,theproblemsforatranslator,especiallyofChinesepoetry,aretwo:Whatdoesthetranslatorthinkthepoeticlinesays?Andoncehethinksheunderstandsit,howcanherenderitintothetargetlanguage?Mostofthedifficulties,accordingtoLink,ariseinaddressingthesecondproblem,"wheretheimpossibilityofperfectanswersspawnsendlessdebate."Almostalwaysatthecenteristheletter-versus-spiritdilemma.Attheliteralistextreme,effortsaremadetodissecteveryconceivabledetailaboutthelanguageoftheoriginalChinesepoem."Thedissection,though,"writesLink,"normallydoestotheartofapoemapproximatelywhatthescalpelofananatomyinstructordoestothelifeofafrog."[28] Chinesecharacters,inavoidinggrammaticalspecificity,offeradvantagestopoets(and,simultaneously,challengestopoetrytranslators)thatareassociatedprimarilywithabsencesofsubject,number,andtense.[29] ItisthenorminclassicalChinesepoetry,andcommoneveninmodernChineseprose,toomitsubjects;thereaderorlistenerinfersasubject.ThegrammarsofsomeWesternlanguages,however,requirethatasubjectbestated(althoughthisisoftenavoidedbyusingapassiveorimpersonalconstruction).MostofthetranslatorscitedinEliotWeinberger's19WaysofLookingatWangWeisupplyasubject.Weinbergerpointsout,however,thatwhenan"I"asasubjectisinserted,a"controllingindividualmindofthepoet"entersanddestroystheeffectoftheChineseline.Withoutasubject,hewrites,"theexperiencebecomesbothuniversalandimmediatetothereader."Anotherapproachtothesubjectlessnessistousethetargetlanguage'spassivevoice;butthisagainparticularizestheexperiencetoomuch.[29] NounshavenonumberinChinese."If,"writesLink,"youwanttotalkinChineseaboutonerose,youmay,butthenyouusea"measureword"tosay"oneblossom-ofroseness."[29] Chineseverbsaretense-less:thereareseveralwaystospecifywhensomethinghappenedorwillhappen,butverbtenseisnotoneofthem.Forpoets,thiscreatesthegreatadvantageofambiguity.AccordingtoLink,Weinberger'sinsightaboutsubjectlessness—thatitproducesaneffect"bothuniversalandimmediate"—appliestotimelessnessaswell.[29] LinkproposesakindofuncertaintyprinciplethatmaybeapplicablenotonlytotranslationfromtheChineselanguage,buttoalltranslation: Dilemmasabouttranslationdonothavedefinitiverightanswers(althoughtherecanbeunambiguouslywrongonesifmisreadingsoftheoriginalareinvolved).Anytranslation(exceptmachinetranslation,adifferentcase)mustpassthroughthemindofatranslator,andthatmindinevitablycontainsitsownstoreofperceptions,memories,andvalues. Weinberger[...]pushesthisinsightfurtherwhenhewritesthat"everyreadingofeverypoem,regardlessoflanguage,isanactoftranslation:translationintothereader'sintellectualandemotionallife."Thenhegoesstillfurther:becauseareader'smentallifeshiftsovertime,thereisasenseinwhich"thesamepoemcannotbereadtwice."[29] Islamicworld[edit] TranslationofmaterialintoArabicexpandedafterthecreationofArabicscriptinthe5thcentury,andgainedgreatimportancewiththeriseofIslamandIslamicempires.Arabtranslationinitiallyfocusedprimarilyonpolitics,renderingPersian,Greek,evenChineseandIndicdiplomaticmaterialsintoArabic.ItlaterfocusedontranslatingclassicalGreekandPersianworks,aswellassomeChineseandIndiantexts,intoArabicforscholarlystudyatmajorIslamiclearningcenters,suchastheAl-Karaouine(Fes,Morocco),Al-Azhar(Cairo,Egypt),andtheAl-NizamiyyaofBaghdad.Intermsoftheory,ArabictranslationdrewheavilyonearlierNearEasterntraditionsaswellasmorecontemporaryGreekandPersiantraditions. ArabictranslationeffortsandtechniquesareimportanttoWesterntranslationtraditionsduetocenturiesofclosecontactsandexchanges.EspeciallyaftertheRenaissance,EuropeansbeganmoreintensivestudyofArabicandPersiantranslationsofclassicalworksaswellasscientificandphilosophicalworksofArabandorientalorigins.Arabic,andtoalesserdegreePersian,becameimportantsourcesofmaterialandperhapsoftechniquesforrevitalizedWesterntraditions,whichintimewouldovertaketheIslamicandorientaltraditions. Inthe19thcentury,aftertheMiddleEast'sIslamicclericsandcopyists hadconcededdefeatintheircenturies-oldbattletocontainthecorruptingeffectsoftheprintingpress,[an]explosioninpublishing...ensued.Alongwithexpandingseculareducation,printingtransformedanoverwhelminglyilliteratesocietyintoapartlyliterateone. Inthepast,thesheikhsandthegovernmenthadexercisedamonopolyoverknowledge.Nowanexpandingelitebenefittedfromastreamofinformationonvirtuallyanythingthatinterestedthem.Between1880and1908...morethansixhundrednewspapersandperiodicalswerefoundedinEgyptalone. Themostprominentamongthemwasal-Muqtataf...[It]wasthepopularexpressionofatranslationmovementthathadbegunearlierinthecenturywithmilitaryandmedicalmanualsandhighlightsfromtheEnlightenmentcanon.(Montesquieu'sConsiderationsontheRomansandFénelon'sTelemachushadbeenfavorites.)[30] AtranslatorwhocontributedmightilytotheadvanceoftheIslamicEnlightenmentwastheEgyptianclericRifaaal-Tahtawi(1801–73),whohadspentfiveyearsinParisinthelate1820s,teachingreligiontoMuslimstudents.AfterreturningtoCairowiththeencouragementofMuhammadAli(1769–1849),theOttomanviceroyofEgypt,al–TahtawibecameheadofthenewschooloflanguagesandembarkedonanintellectualrevolutionbyinitiatingaprogramtotranslatesometwothousandEuropeanandTurkishvolumes,rangingfromancienttextsongeographyandgeometrytoVoltaire'sbiographyofPetertheGreat,alongwiththeMarseillaiseandtheentireCodeNapoléon.Thiswasthebiggest,mostmeaningfulimportationofforeignthoughtintoArabicsinceAbbasidtimes(750–1258).[31] InFranceal-TahtawihadbeenstruckbythewaytheFrenchlanguage...wasconstantlyrenewingitselftofitmodernwaysofliving.YetArabichasitsownsourcesofreinvention.TherootsystemthatArabicshareswithotherSemitictonguessuchasHebrewiscapableofexpandingthemeaningsofwordsusingstructuredconsonantalvariations:thewordforairplane,forexample,hasthesamerootasthewordforbird.[32] MuhammadAbduh ThemovementtotranslateEnglishandEuropeantextstransformedtheArabicandOttomanTurkishlanguages,andnewwords,simplifiedsyntax,anddirectnesscametobevaluedoverthepreviousconvolutions.EducatedArabsandTurksinthenewprofessionsandthemodernizedcivilserviceexpressedskepticism,writesChristopherdeBellaigue,"withafreedomthatisrarelywitnessedtoday...Nolongerwaslegitimateknowledgedefinedbytextsinthereligiousschools,interpretedforthemostpartwithstultifyingliteralness.Ithadcometoincludevirtuallyanyintellectualproductionanywhereintheworld."Oneoftheneologismsthat,inaway,cametocharacterizetheinfusionofnewideasviatranslationwas"darwiniya",or"Darwinism".[30] OneofthemostinfluentialliberalIslamicthinkersofthetimewasMuhammadAbduh(1849–1905),Egypt'sseniorjudicialauthority—itschiefmufti—attheturnofthe20thcenturyandanadmirerofDarwinwhoin1903visitedDarwin'sexponentHerbertSpencerathishomeinBrighton.Spencer'sviewofsocietyasanorganismwithitsownlawsofevolutionparalleledAbduh'sideas.[33] AfterWorldWarI,whenBritainandFrancedivideduptheMiddleEast'scountries,apartfromTurkey,betweenthem,pursuanttotheSykes-Picotagreement—inviolationofsolemnwartimepromisesofpostwarArabautonomy—therecameanimmediatereaction:theMuslimBrotherhoodemergedinEgypt,theHouseofSaudtookovertheHijaz,andregimesledbyarmyofficerscametopowerinIranandTurkey."[B]othilliberalcurrentsofthemodernMiddleEast,"writesdeBellaigue,"Islamismandmilitarism,receivedamajorimpetusfromWesternempire-builders."Asoftenhappensincountriesundergoingsocialcrisis,theaspirationsoftheMuslimworld'stranslatorsandmodernizers,suchasMuhammadAbduh,largelyhadtoyieldtoretrogradecurrents.[34] Fidelityandtransparency[edit] Dryden Fidelity(or"faithfulness")andfelicity[35](ortransparency),dualidealsintranslation,areoften(thoughnotalways)atodds.A17th-centuryFrenchcriticcoinedthephrase"lesbellesinfidèles"tosuggestthattranslationscanbeeitherfaithfulorbeautiful,butnotboth.[c]Fidelityistheextenttowhichatranslationaccuratelyrendersthemeaningofthesourcetext,withoutdistortion.Transparencyistheextenttowhichatranslationappearstoanativespeakerofthetargetlanguagetohaveoriginallybeenwritteninthatlanguage,andconformstoitsgrammar,syntaxandidiom.JohnDryden(1631–1700)wroteinhisprefacetothetranslationanthologySylvae: WhereIhavetakenawaysomeof[theoriginalauthors']Expressions,andcutthemshorter,itmaypossiblybeonthisconsideration,thatwhatwasbeautifulintheGreekorLatin,wouldnotappearsoshiningintheEnglish;andwhereIhaveenlarg'dthem,IdesirethefalseCritickswouldnotalwaysthinkthatthosethoughtsarewhollymine,butthateithertheyaresecretlyinthePoet,ormaybefairlydeduc'dfromhim;oratleast,ifboththoseconsiderationsshouldfail,thatmyownisofapiecewithhis,andthatifhewereliving,andanEnglishman,theyaresuchashewou'dprobablyhavewritten.[37] Atranslationthatmeetsthecriterionoffidelity(faithfulness)issaidtobe"faithful";atranslationthatmeetsthecriterionoftransparency,"idiomatic".Dependingonthegiventranslation,thetwoqualitiesmaynotbemutuallyexclusive.Thecriteriaforjudgingthefidelityofatranslationvaryaccordingtothesubject,typeanduseofthetext,itsliteraryqualities,itssocialorhistoricalcontext,etc.Thecriteriaforjudgingthetransparencyofatranslationappearmorestraightforward:anunidiomatictranslation"soundswrong"and,inextremecasesofword-for-wordtranslation,oftenresultsinpatentnonsense. Schleiermacher Nevertheless,incertaincontextsatranslatormayconsciouslyseektoproducealiteraltranslation.Translatorsofliterary,religious,orhistorictextsoftenadhereascloselyaspossibletothesourcetext,stretchingthelimitsofthetargetlanguagetoproduceanunidiomatictext.Also,atranslatormayadoptexpressionsfromthesourcelanguageinordertoprovide"localcolor". Venuti WhilecurrentWesterntranslationpracticeisdominatedbythedualconceptsof"fidelity"and"transparency",thishasnotalwaysbeenthecase.Therehavebeenperiods,especiallyinpre-ClassicalRomeandinthe18thcentury,whenmanytranslatorssteppedbeyondtheboundsoftranslationproperintotherealmofadaptation.Adaptedtranslationretainscurrencyinsomenon-Westerntraditions.TheIndianepic,theRamayana,appearsinmanyversionsinthevariousIndianlanguages,andthestoriesaredifferentineach.SimilarexamplesaretobefoundinmedievalChristianliterature,whichadjustedthetexttolocalcustomsandmores. Manynon-transparent-translationtheoriesdrawonconceptsfromGermanRomanticism,themostobviousinfluencebeingtheGermantheologianandphilosopherFriedrichSchleiermacher.Inhisseminallecture"OntheDifferentMethodsofTranslation"(1813)hedistinguishedbetweentranslationmethodsthatmove"thewritertoward[thereader]",i.e.,transparency,andthosethatmovethe"readertoward[theauthor]",i.e.,anextremefidelitytotheforeignnessofthesourcetext.Schleiermacherfavoredthelatterapproach;hewasmotivated,however,notsomuchbyadesiretoembracetheforeign,asbyanationalistdesiretoopposeFrance'sculturaldominationandtopromoteGermanliterature. Inrecentdecades,prominentadvocatesofsuch"non-transparent"translationhaveincludedtheFrenchscholarAntoineBerman,whoidentifiedtwelvedeformingtendenciesinherentinmostprosetranslations,[38]andtheAmericantheoristLawrenceVenuti,whohascalledontranslatorstoapply"foreignizing"ratherthandomesticatingtranslationstrategies.[39] Equivalence[edit] Mainarticle:Dynamicandformalequivalence Thequestionoffidelityvs.transparencyhasalsobeenformulatedintermsof,respectively,"formalequivalence"and"dynamic[orfunctional]equivalence"–expressionsassociatedwiththetranslatorEugeneNidaandoriginallycoinedtodescribewaysoftranslatingtheBible;butthetwoapproachesareapplicabletoanytranslation."Formalequivalence"correspondsto"metaphrase",and"dynamicequivalence"to"paraphrase"."Formalequivalence"(soughtvia"literal"translation)attemptstorenderthetextliterally,or"wordforword"(thelatterexpressionbeingitselfaword-for-wordrenderingoftheclassicalLatinverbumproverbo)–ifnecessary,attheexpenseoffeaturesnaturaltothetargetlanguage.Bycontrast,"dynamicequivalence"(or"functionalequivalence")conveystheessentialthoughtsexpressedinasourcetext—ifnecessary,attheexpenseofliterality,originalsememeandwordorder,thesourcetext'sactivevs.passivevoice,etc. Thereis,however,nosharpboundarybetweenformalandfunctionalequivalence.Onthecontrary,theyrepresentaspectrumoftranslationapproaches.Eachisusedatvarioustimesandinvariouscontextsbythesametranslator,andatvariouspointswithinthesametext–sometimessimultaneously.Competenttranslationentailsthejudiciousblendingofformalandfunctionalequivalents.[40] Commonpitfallsintranslation,especiallywhenpracticedbyinexperiencedtranslators,involvefalseequivalentssuchas"falsefriends"[41]andfalsecognates. Back-translation[edit] A"back-translation"isatranslationofatranslatedtextbackintothelanguageoftheoriginaltext,madewithoutreferencetotheoriginaltext.Comparisonofaback-translationwiththeoriginaltextissometimesusedasacheckontheaccuracyoftheoriginaltranslation,muchastheaccuracyofamathematicaloperationissometimescheckedbyreversingtheoperation.Buttheresultsofsuchreverse-translationoperations,whileusefulasapproximatechecks,arenotalwayspreciselyreliable.[42]Back-translationmustingeneralbelessaccuratethanback-calculationbecauselinguisticsymbols(words)areoftenambiguous,whereasmathematicalsymbolsareintentionallyunequivocal.Inthecontextofmachinetranslation,aback-translationisalsocalleda"round-triptranslation."Whentranslationsareproducedofmaterialusedinmedicalclinicaltrials,suchasinformed-consentforms,aback-translationisoftenrequiredbytheethicscommitteeorinstitutionalreviewboard.[43] In1903,MarkTwainback-translatedhisownshortstory,"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty". MarkTwainprovidedhumorouslytellingevidenceforthefrequentunreliabilityofback-translationwhenheissuedhisownback-translationofaFrenchtranslationofhisshortstory,"TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty".Hepublishedhisback-translationina1903volumetogetherwithhisEnglish-languageoriginal,theFrenchtranslation,anda"PrivateHistoryofthe'JumpingFrog'Story".ThelatterincludedasynopsizedadaptationofhisstorythatTwainstatedhadappeared,unattributedtoTwain,inaProfessorSidgwick'sGreekProseComposition(p. 116)underthetitle,"TheAthenianandtheFrog";theadaptationhadforatimebeentakenforanindependentancientGreekprecursortoTwain's"JumpingFrog"story.[44] Whenadocumentsurvivesonlyintranslation,theoriginalhavingbeenlost,researcherssometimesundertakeback-translationinanefforttoreconstructtheoriginaltext.AnexampleinvolvesthenovelTheSaragossaManuscriptbythePolisharistocratJanPotocki(1761–1815),whowrotethenovelinFrenchandanonymouslypublishedfragmentsin1804and1813–14.PortionsoftheoriginalFrench-languagemanuscriptweresubsequentlylost;however,themissingfragmentssurvivedinaPolishtranslation,madebyEdmundChojeckiin1847fromacompleteFrenchcopythathassincebeenlost.French-languageversionsofthecompleteSaragossaManuscripthavesincebeenproduced,basedonextantFrench-languagefragmentsandonFrench-languageversionsthathavebeenback-translatedfromChojecki'sPolishversion.[45] ManyworksbytheinfluentialClassicalphysicianGalensurviveonlyinmedievalArabictranslation.SomesurviveonlyinRenaissanceLatintranslationsfromtheArabic,thusatasecondremovefromtheoriginal.TobetterunderstandGalen,scholarshaveattemptedback-translationofsuchworksinordertoreconstructtheoriginalGreek.[citationneeded] Whenhistorianssuspectthatadocumentisactuallyatranslationfromanotherlanguage,back-translationintothathypotheticaloriginallanguagecanprovidesupportingevidencebyshowingthatsuchcharacteristicsasidioms,puns,peculiargrammaticalstructures,etc.,areinfactderivedfromtheoriginallanguage.Forexample,theknowntextoftheTillEulenspiegelfolktalesisinHighGermanbutcontainspunsthatworkonlywhenback-translatedtoLowGerman.Thisseemsclearevidencethatthesetales(oratleastlargeportionsofthem)wereoriginallywritteninLowGermanandtranslatedintoHighGermanbyanover-metaphrastictranslator. SupportersofAramaicprimacy—theviewthattheChristianNewTestamentoritssourceswereoriginallywrittenintheAramaiclanguage—seektoprovetheircasebyshowingthatdifficultpassagesintheexistingGreektextoftheNewTestamentmakemuchmoresensewhenback-translatedtoAramaic:that,forexample,someincomprehensiblereferencesareinfactAramaicpunsthatdonotworkinGreek.Duetosimilarindications,itisbelievedthatthe2ndcenturyGnosticGospelofJudas,whichsurvivesonlyinCoptic,wasoriginallywritteninGreek. JohnDryden(1631–1700),thedominantEnglish-languageliteraryfigureofhisage,illustrates,inhisuseofback-translation,translators'influenceontheevolutionoflanguagesandliterarystyles.DrydenisbelievedtobethefirstpersontopositthatEnglishsentencesshouldnotendinprepositionsbecauseLatinsentencescannotendinprepositions.[46][47]Drydencreatedtheproscriptionagainst"prepositionstranding"in1672whenheobjectedtoBenJonson's1611phrase,"thebodiesthatthosesoulswerefrightedfrom",thoughhedidnotprovidetherationaleforhispreference.[48]DrydenoftentranslatedhiswritingintoLatin,tocheckwhetherhiswritingwasconciseandelegant,Latinbeingconsideredanelegantandlong-livedlanguagewithwhichtocompare;thenheback-translatedhiswritingbacktoEnglishaccordingtoLatin-grammarusage.AsLatindoesnothavesentencesendinginprepositions,DrydenmayhaveappliedLatingrammartoEnglish,thusformingthecontroversialruleofnosentence-endingprepositions,subsequentlyadoptedbyotherwriters.[49][d] Sourceandtargetlanguages[edit] Inthepracticeoftranslation,thesourcelanguageisthelanguagebeingtranslatedfrom,whilethetargetlanguage,alsocalledthereceptorlanguage,[50]isthelanguagebeingtranslatedinto.[51]Difficultiesintranslatingcanarisefromlexicalandsyntacticaldifferencesbetweenthesourcelanguageandthetargetlanguage,whichdifferencestendtobegreaterbetweentwolanguagesbelongingtodifferentlanguagefamilies.[52] Oftenthesourcelanguageisthetranslator'ssecondlanguage,whilethetargetlanguageisthetranslator'sfirstlanguage.[53]Insomegeographicalsettings,however,thesourcelanguageisthetranslator'sfirstlanguagebecausenotenoughpeoplespeakthesourcelanguageasasecondlanguage.[54]Forinstance,a2005surveyfoundthat89%ofprofessionalSlovenetranslatorstranslateintotheirsecondlanguage,usuallyEnglish.[54]Incaseswherethesourcelanguageisthetranslator'sfirstlanguage,thetranslationprocesshasbeenreferredtobyvariousterms,including"translatingintoanon-mothertongue","translatingintoasecondlanguage","inversetranslation","reversetranslation","servicetranslation",and"translationfromAtoB".[54] Translationforspecializedorprofessionalfieldsrequiresaworkingknowledge,aswell,ofthepertinentterminologyinthefield.Forexample,translationofalegaltextrequiresnotonlyfluencyintherespectivelanguagesbutalsofamiliaritywiththeterminologyspecifictothelegalfieldineachlanguage.[55] Whiletheformandstyleofthesourcelanguageoftencannotbereproducedinthetargetlanguage,themeaningandcontentcan.LinguistRomanJakobsonwentsofarastoassertthatallcognitiveexperiencecanbeclassifiedandexpressedinanylivinglanguage.[51]LinguistGhil'adZuckermannsuggeststhatthelimitsarenotoftranslationpersebutratherofeleganttranslation.[56]: 219  Sourceandtargettexts[edit] Seealso:Sourcetext Intranslation,asourcetext(ST)isatextwritteninagivensourcelanguagewhichistobe,orhasbeen,translatedintoanotherlanguage,whileatargettext(TT)isatranslatedtextwrittenintheintendedtargetlanguage,whichistheresultofatranslationfromagivensourcetext.AccordingtoJeremyMunday'sdefinitionoftranslation,"theprocessoftranslationbetweentwodifferentwrittenlanguagesinvolvesthechangingofanoriginalwrittentext(thesourcetextorST)intheoriginalverballanguage(thesourcelanguageorSL)intoawrittentext(thetargettextorTT)inadifferentverballanguage(thetargetlanguageorTL)".[57]Theterms'sourcetext'and'targettext'arepreferredover'original'and'translation'becausetheydonothavethesamepositivevs.negativevaluejudgment. TranslationscholarsincludingEugeneNidaandPeterNewmarkhaverepresentedthedifferentapproachestotranslationasfallingbroadlyintosource-text-orientedortarget-text-orientedcategories.[58] Translators[edit] Competenttranslatorsshowthefollowingattributes: averygoodknowledgeofthelanguage,writtenandspoken,fromwhichtheyaretranslating(thesourcelanguage); anexcellentcommandofthelanguageintowhichtheyaretranslating(thetargetlanguage); familiaritywiththesubjectmatterofthetextbeingtranslated; aprofoundunderstandingoftheetymologicalandidiomaticcorrelatesbetweenthetwolanguages,includingsociolinguisticregisterwhenappropriate;and afinelytunedsenseofwhentometaphrase("translateliterally")andwhentoparaphrase,soastoassuretrueratherthanspuriousequivalentsbetweenthesourceandtargetlanguagetexts.[59] Acompetenttranslatorisnotonlybilingualbutbicultural.Alanguageisnotmerelyacollectionofwordsandofrulesofgrammarandsyntaxforgeneratingsentences,butalsoavastinterconnectingsystemofconnotationsandculturalreferenceswhosemastery,writeslinguistMarioPei,"comesclosetobeingalifetimejob."[60]Thecomplexityofthetranslator'staskcannotbeoverstated;oneauthorsuggeststhatbecominganaccomplishedtranslator—afterhavingalreadyacquiredagoodbasicknowledgeofbothlanguagesandcultures—mayrequireaminimumoftenyears'experience.Viewedinthislight,itisaseriousmisconceptiontoassumethatapersonwhohasfairfluencyintwolanguageswill,byvirtueofthatfactalone,beconsistentlycompetenttotranslatebetweenthem.[18]EmilyWilson,aprofessorofclassicalstudiesattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandherselfatranslator,writes:"[I]tis[hard]toproduceagoodliterarytranslation.ThisiscertainlytrueoftranslationsofancientGreekandRomantexts,butitisalsotrueofliterarytranslationingeneral:itisverydifficult.Mostreadersofforeignlanguagesarenottranslators;mostwritersarenottranslators.Translatorshavetoreadandwriteatthesametime,asifalwaysplayingmultipleinstrumentsinaone-personband.Andmostone-personbandsdonotsoundverygood."[61] Thetranslator'srole,inrelationtotheoriginaltext,hasbeencomparedtotherolesofotherinterpretiveartists,e.g.,amusicianoractorwhointerpretsaworkofmusicalordramaticart.Translating,especiallyatextofanycomplexity(likeotherhumanactivities[62]),involvesinterpretation:choicesmustbemade,whichimpliesinterpretation.[15][e][f]MarkPolizzottiwrites:"Agoodtranslationoffersnotareproductionoftheworkbutaninterpretation,are-representation,justastheperformanceofaplayorasonataisarepresentationofthescriptorthescore,oneamongmanypossiblerepresentations."[64]Atranslationofatextofanycomplexityis–as,itself,aworkofart–uniqueandunrepeatable.[g] TheEnglish-languagenovelistJosephConrad,whosewritingsZdzisławNajderhasdescribedasvergingon"auto-translation"fromConrad'sPolishandFrenchlinguisticpersonae,[65]advisedhisnieceandPolishtranslatorAnielaZagórska:"[D]on'ttroubletobetooscrupulous...Imaytellyou(inFrench)thatinmyopinionilvautmieuxinterpréterquetraduire[itisbettertointerpretthantotranslate]...Ils'agitdoncdetrouverleséquivalents.Etlà,machère,jevousprielaissezvousguiderplutôtparvotretempéramentqueparuneconsciencesévère...[Itis,then,aquestionoffindingtheequivalentexpressions.Andthere,mydear,Ibegyoutoletyourselfbeguidedmorebyyourtemperamentthanbyastrictconscience....]"[66]Conradadvisedanothertranslatorthattheprimerequisiteforagoodtranslationisthatitbe"idiomatic"."Forintheidiomistheclearnessofalanguageandthelanguage'sforceanditspicturesqueness—bywhichlastImeanthepicture-producingpowerofarrangedwords."[67]ConradthoughtC.K.ScottMoncrieff'sEnglishtranslationofMarcelProust'sÀlarecherchedutempsperdu(InSearchofLostTime—or,inScottMoncrieff'srendering,RemembranceofThingsPast)tobepreferabletotheFrenchoriginal.[68][h] EmilyWilsonwritesthat"translationalwaysinvolvesinterpretation,and[requires]everytranslator...tothinkasdeeplyashumanlypossibleabouteachverbal,poetic,andinterpretativechoice."[69]Translationofotherthanthesimplestbrieftextsrequirespainstakinglyclosereadingofthesourcetextandthedrafttranslation,soastoresolvetheambiguitiesinherentinlanguageandtherebytoasymptoticallyapproachthemostaccuraterenderingofthesourcetext.[70] Partoftheambiguity,foratranslator,involvesthestructureofhumanlanguage.PsychologistandneuralscientistGaryMarcusnotesthat"virtuallyeverysentence[thatpeoplegenerate]isambiguous,ofteninmultipleways.Ourbrainissogoodatcomprehendinglanguagethatwedonotusuallynotice."[71]Anexampleoflinguisticambiguityisthe"pronoundisambiguationproblem"("PDP"):amachinehasnowayofdeterminingtowhomorwhatapronouninasentence—suchas"he","she"or"it"—refers.[72]Suchdisambiguationisnotinfalliblebyahuman,either. Ambiguityisaconcernbothtotranslatorsand–asthewritingsofpoetandliterarycriticWilliamEmpsonhavedemonstrated–toliterarycritics.Ambiguitymaybedesirable,indeedessential,inpoetryanddiplomacy;itcanbemoreproblematicinordinaryprose.[73] ChristopherKasparekalsocautionsthatcompetenttranslation–analogouslytothedictum,inmathematics,ofKurtGödel'sincompletenesstheorems–generallyrequiresmoreinformationaboutthesubjectmatterthanispresentintheactualsourcetext.Thereforetranslationofatextofanycomplexitytypicallyrequiressomeresearchonthetranslator'spart.[70] Atranslatorfacestwocontradictorytasks:whentranslating,tostriveforomniscienceconcerningthetext;and,whenreviewingtheresultingtranslation,toadoptthereader’sunfamiliaritywithit.Analogously,"[i]ntheprocess,thetranslatorisalsoconstantlyseesawingbetweentherespectivelinguisticandculturalfeaturesofhistwolanguages."[70] Thus,writesKasparek,"Translatingatextofanycomplexity,liketheperformingofamusicalordramaticwork,involvesinterpretation:choicesmustbemade,whichentailsinterpretation.BernardShaw,aspiringtofelicitousunderstandingofliteraryworks,wroteintheprefacetohis1901volume,ThreePlaysforPuritans:'IwouldgivehalfadozenofShakespeare'splaysforoneoftheprefacesheoughttohavewritten.'"[70] Itisduetotheinescapablenecessityofinterpretationthat–pacethestoryaboutthe3rdcenturyBCESeptuaginttranslationsofsomebiblicalOldTestamentbooksfromHebrewintoKoineGreek–notwotranslationsofaliterarywork,bydifferenthandsorbythesamehandatdifferenttimes,arelikelytobeidentical.Ashasbeenobserved–byLeonardodaVinci?PaulValery?E.M.Forster?PabloPicasso?byallofthem?–"Aworkofartisneverfinished,onlyabandoned."[70] Translatorsmayrenderonlypartsoftheoriginaltext,providedthattheyinformreadersofthataction.Butatranslatorshouldnotassumetheroleofcensorandsurreptitiouslydeleteorbowdlerizepassagesmerelytopleaseapoliticalormoralinterest.[74] Translatinghasservedasaschoolofwritingformanyanauthor,muchasthecopyingofmasterworksofpaintinghasschooledmanyanovicepainter.[75]Atranslatorwhocancompetentlyrenderanauthor'sthoughtsintothetranslator'sownlanguage,shouldcertainlybeabletoadequatelyrender,inhisownlanguage,anythoughtsofhisown.Translating(likeanalyticphilosophy)compelspreciseanalysisoflanguageelementsandoftheirusage.In1946thepoetEzraPound,thenatSt.Elizabeth'sHospital,inWashington,D.C.,advisedavisitor,the18-year-oldbeginningpoetW.S.Merwin:"Theworkoftranslationisthebestteacheryou'lleverhave."[76][i]Merwin,translator-poetwhotookPound'sadvicetoheart,writesoftranslationasan"impossible,unfinishable"art.[78] Translators,includingmonkswhospreadBuddhisttextsinEastAsia,andtheearlymodernEuropeantranslatorsoftheBible,inthecourseoftheirworkhaveshapedtheverylanguagesintowhichtheyhavetranslated.Theyhaveactedasbridgesforconveyingknowledgebetweencultures;andalongwithideas,theyhaveimportedfromthesourcelanguages,intotheirownlanguages,loanwordsandcalquesofgrammaticalstructures,idioms,andvocabulary. Interpreting[edit] HernánCortésandLaMalinchemeetMoctezumaIIinTenochtitlan,8November1519. LewisandClarkandtheirNativeAmericaninterpreter,Sacagawea Mainarticle:Interpreting Interpretingisthefacilitationoforalorsign-languagecommunication,eithersimultaneouslyorconsecutively,betweentwo,oramongthreeormore,speakerswhoarenotspeaking,orsigning,thesamelanguage.Theterm"interpreting,"ratherthan"interpretation,"ispreferentiallyusedforthisactivitybyAnglophoneinterpretersandtranslators,toavoidconfusionwithothermeaningsoftheword"interpretation." UnlikeEnglish,manylanguagesdonotemploytwoseparatewordstodenotetheactivitiesofwrittenandlive-communication(oralorsign-language)translators.[j]EvenEnglishdoesnotalwaysmakethedistinction,frequentlyusing"translating"asasynonymfor"interpreting." Interpretershavesometimesplayedcrucialrolesinhistory.AprimeexampleisLaMalinche,alsoknownasMalintzin,MalinalliandDoñaMarina,anearly-16th-centuryNahuawomanfromtheMexicanGulfCoast.AsachildshehadbeensoldorgiventoMayaslave-tradersfromXicalango,andthushadbecomebilingual.SubsequentlygivenalongwithotherwomentotheinvadingSpaniards,shebecameinstrumentalintheSpanishconquestofMexico,actingasinterpreter,adviser,intermediaryandlovertoHernánCortés.[80] LinShu Nearlythreecenturieslater,intheUnitedStates,acomparableroleasinterpreterwasplayedfortheLewisandClarkExpeditionof1804–6bySacagawea.Asachild,theLemhiShoshonewomanhadbeenkidnappedbyHidatsaIndiansandthushadbecomebilingual.Sacagaweafacilitatedtheexpedition'straverseoftheNorthAmericancontinenttothePacificOcean.[81] ThefamousChinesemanoflettersLinShu(1852–1924),whoknewnoforeignlanguages,renderedWesternliteraryclassicsintoChinesewiththehelpofhisfriendWangShouchang(王壽昌),whohadstudiedinFrance.WanginterpretedthetextsforLin,whorenderedthemintoChinese.Lin'sfirstsuchtranslation,巴黎茶花女遺事(PastStoriesoftheCamellia-womanofParis–AlexandreDumas,fils's,LaDameauxCamélias),publishedin1899,wasanimmediatesuccessandwasfollowedbymanymoretranslationsfromtheFrenchandtheEnglish.[82] Sworntranslation[edit] Sworntranslation,alsocalled"certifiedtranslation,"aimsatlegalequivalencebetweentwodocumentswrittenindifferentlanguages.Itisperformedbysomeoneauthorizedtodosobylocalregulations,whichvarywidelyfromcountrytocountry.Somecountriesrecognizeself-declaredcompetence.Othersrequirethetranslatortobeanofficialstateappointee.Insomecountries,suchastheUnitedKingdom,certaingovernmentinstitutionsrequirethattranslatorsbeaccreditedbycertaintranslationinstitutesorassociationsinordertobeabletocarryoutcertifiedtranslations. Telephone[edit] Manycommercialservicesexistthatwillinterpretspokenlanguageviatelephone.Thereisalsoatleastonecustom-builtmobiledevicethatdoesthesamething.ThedeviceconnectsuserstohumaninterpreterswhocantranslatebetweenEnglishand180otherlanguages.[83] Internet[edit] Web-basedhumantranslationisgenerallyfavoredbycompaniesandindividualsthatwishtosecuremoreaccuratetranslations.Inviewofthefrequentinaccuracyofmachinetranslations,humantranslationremainsthemostreliable,mostaccurateformoftranslationavailable.[84]Withtherecentemergenceoftranslationcrowdsourcing,[85][86]translationmemorytechniques,andinternetapplications,[87]translationagencieshavebeenabletoprovideon-demandhuman-translationservicestobusinesses,individuals,andenterprises. WhilenotinstantaneouslikeitsmachinecounterpartssuchasGoogleTranslateandBabelFish(nowdefunct),web-basedhumantranslationhasbeengainingpopularitybyprovidingrelativelyfast,accuratetranslationofbusinesscommunications,legaldocuments,medicalrecords,andsoftwarelocalization.[88]Web-basedhumantranslationalsoappealstoprivatewebsiteusersandbloggers.[89]Contentsofwebsitesaretranslatablebuturlsofwebsitesarenottranslatableintootherlanguages.Languagetoolsontheinternetprovidehelpinunderstandingtext. Computerassist[edit] Mainarticle:Computer-assistedtranslation Computer-assistedtranslation(CAT),alsocalled"computer-aidedtranslation,""machine-aidedhumantranslation"(MAHT)and"interactivetranslation,"isaformoftranslationwhereinahumantranslatorcreatesatargettextwiththeassistanceofacomputerprogram.Themachinesupportsahumantranslator. Computer-assistedtranslationcanincludestandarddictionaryandgrammarsoftware.Theterm,however,normallyreferstoarangeofspecializedprogramsavailabletothetranslator,includingtranslationmemory,terminology-management,concordance,andalignmentprograms. Thesetoolsspeedupandfacilitatehumantranslation,buttheydonotprovidetranslation.Thelatterisafunctionoftoolsknownbroadlyasmachinetranslation.Thetoolsspeedupthetranslationprocessbyassistingthehumantranslatorbymemorizingorcommittingtranslationstoadatabase(translationmemorydatabase)sothatifthesamesentenceoccursinthesameprojectorafutureproject,thecontentcanbereused.Thistranslationreuseleadstocostsavings,betterconsistencyandshorterprojecttimelines. Machinetranslation[edit] Mainarticle:Machinetranslation Machinetranslation(MT)isaprocesswherebyacomputerprogramanalyzesasourcetextand,inprinciple,producesatargettextwithouthumanintervention.Inreality,however,machinetranslationtypicallydoesinvolvehumanintervention,intheformofpre-editingandpost-editing.[90]Withproperterminologywork,withpreparationofthesourcetextformachinetranslation(pre-editing),andwithreworkingofthemachinetranslationbyahumantranslator(post-editing),commercialmachine-translationtoolscanproduceusefulresults,especiallyifthemachine-translationsystemisintegratedwithatranslationmemoryortranslationmanagementsystem.[91] UneditedmachinetranslationispubliclyavailablethroughtoolsontheInternetsuchasGoogleTranslate,BabelFish(nowdefunct),Babylon,DeepLTranslator,andStarDict.Theseproduceroughtranslationsthat,underfavorablecircumstances,"givethegist"ofthesourcetext.WiththeInternet,translationsoftwarecanhelpnon-native-speakingindividualsunderstandwebpagespublishedinotherlanguages.Whole-page-translationtoolsareoflimitedutility,however,sincetheyofferonlyalimitedpotentialunderstandingoftheoriginalauthor'sintentandcontext;translatedpagestendtobemoreerroneouslyhumorousandconfusingthanenlightening. Interactivetranslationswithpop-upwindowsarebecomingmorepopular.Thesetoolsshowoneormorepossibleequivalentsforeachwordorphrase.Humanoperatorsmerelyneedtoselectthelikeliestequivalentasthemouseglidesovertheforeign-languagetext.Possibleequivalentscanbegroupedbypronunciation.Also,companiessuchasEctacoproducepocketdevicesthatprovidemachinetranslations. ClaudePiron Relyingexclusivelyonuneditedmachinetranslation,however,ignoresthefactthatcommunicationinhumanlanguageiscontext-embeddedandthatittakesapersontocomprehendthecontextoftheoriginaltextwithareasonabledegreeofprobability.Itiscertainlytruethatevenpurelyhuman-generatedtranslationsarepronetoerror;therefore,toensurethatamachine-generatedtranslationwillbeusefultoahumanbeingandthatpublishable-qualitytranslationisachieved,suchtranslationsmustbereviewedandeditedbyahuman.[k]ClaudePironwritesthatmachinetranslation,atitsbest,automatestheeasierpartofatranslator'sjob;theharderandmoretime-consumingpartusuallyinvolvesdoingextensiveresearchtoresolveambiguitiesinthesourcetext,whichthegrammaticalandlexicalexigenciesofthetargetlanguagerequiretoberesolved.[93]Suchresearchisanecessarypreludetothepre-editingnecessaryinordertoprovideinputformachine-translationsoftware,suchthattheoutputwillnotbemeaningless.[90] Theweaknessesofpuremachinetranslation,unaidedbyhumanexpertise,arethoseofartificialintelligenceitself.[94]Asof2018,professionaltranslatorMarkPolizzottiheldthatmachinetranslation,byGoogleTranslateandthelike,wasunlikelytothreatenhumantranslatorsanytimesoon,becausemachineswouldnevergraspnuanceandconnotation.[95]WritesPaulTaylor:"Perhapsthereisalimittowhatacomputercandowithoutknowingthatitismanipulatingimperfectrepresentationsofanexternalreality."[96] Literarytranslation[edit] A1998nonfictionbookbyRobertWechsleronliterarytranslationasaperformative,ratherthancreative,art Translationofliteraryworks(novels,shortstories,plays,poems,etc.)isconsideredaliterarypursuitinitsownright.NotableinCanadianliteraturespecificallyastranslatorsarefiguressuchasSheilaFischman,RobertDickson,andLindaGaboriau;andtheCanadianGovernorGeneral'sAwardsannuallypresentprizesforthebestEnglish-to-FrenchandFrench-to-Englishliterarytranslations. Otherwriters,amongmanywhohavemadeanameforthemselvesasliterarytranslators,includeVasilyZhukovsky,TadeuszBoy-Żeleński,VladimirNabokov,JorgeLuisBorges,RobertStiller,LydiaDavis,HarukiMurakami,AchyObejas,andJhumpaLahiri. Inthe2010sasubstantialgenderimbalancewasnotedinliterarytranslationintoEnglish,[97]withfarmoremalewritersbeingtranslatedthanwomenwriters.In2014MeytalRadzinskilaunchedtheWomeninTranslationcampaigntoaddressthis.[98][99][100] History[edit] ThefirstimportanttranslationintheWestwasthatoftheSeptuagint,acollectionofJewishScripturestranslatedintoearlyKoineGreekinAlexandriabetweenthe3rdand1stcenturiesBCE.ThedispersedJewshadforgottentheirancestrallanguageandneededGreekversions(translations)oftheirScriptures.[101] ThroughouttheMiddleAges,Latinwasthelinguafrancaofthewesternlearnedworld.The9th-centuryAlfredtheGreat,kingofWessexinEngland,wasfaraheadofhistimeincommissioningvernacularAnglo-SaxontranslationsofBede'sEcclesiasticalHistoryandBoethius'ConsolationofPhilosophy.Meanwhile,theChristianChurchfrownedonevenpartialadaptationsofSt.Jerome'sVulgateofc.384CE,[102]thestandardLatinBible. InAsia,thespreadofBuddhismledtolarge-scaleongoingtranslationeffortsspanningwelloverathousandyears.TheTangutEmpirewasespeciallyefficientinsuchefforts;exploitingthethennewlyinventedblockprinting,andwiththefullsupportofthegovernment(contemporarysourcesdescribetheEmperorandhismotherpersonallycontributingtothetranslationeffort,alongsidesagesofvariousnationalities),theTangutstookmeredecadestotranslatevolumesthathadtakentheChinesecenturiestorender.[citationneeded] TheArabsundertooklarge-scaleeffortsattranslation.HavingconqueredtheGreekworld,theymadeArabicversionsofitsphilosophicalandscientificworks.DuringtheMiddleAges,translationsofsomeoftheseArabicversionsweremadeintoLatin,chieflyatCórdobainSpain.[103]KingAlfonsoXtheWiseofCastileinthe13thcenturypromotedthiseffortbyfoundingaScholaTraductorum(SchoolofTranslation)inToledo.ThereArabictexts,Hebrewtexts,andLatintextsweretranslatedintotheothertonguesbyMuslim,Jewish,andChristianscholars,whoalsoarguedthemeritsoftheirrespectivereligions.LatintranslationsofGreekandoriginalArabworksofscholarshipandsciencehelpedadvanceEuropeanScholasticism,andthusEuropeanscienceandculture. ThebroadhistorictrendsinWesterntranslationpracticemaybeillustratedontheexampleoftranslationintotheEnglishlanguage. GeoffreyChaucer ThefirstfinetranslationsintoEnglishweremadeinthe14thcenturybyGeoffreyChaucer,whoadaptedfromtheItalianofGiovanniBoccaccioinhisownKnight'sTaleandTroilusandCriseyde;beganatranslationoftheFrench-languageRomandelaRose;andcompletedatranslationofBoethiusfromtheLatin.ChaucerfoundedanEnglishpoetictraditiononadaptationsandtranslationsfromthoseearlier-establishedliterarylanguages.[103] ThefirstgreatEnglishtranslationwastheWycliffeBible(c.1382),whichshowedtheweaknessesofanunderdevelopedEnglishprose.Onlyattheendofthe15thcenturydidthegreatageofEnglishprosetranslationbeginwithThomasMalory'sLeMorteDarthur—anadaptationofArthurianromancessofreethatitcan,infact,hardlybecalledatruetranslation.ThefirstgreatTudortranslationsare,accordingly,theTyndaleNewTestament(1525),whichinfluencedtheAuthorizedVersion(1611),andLordBerners'versionofJeanFroissart'sChronicles(1523–25).[103] MarsilioFicino Meanwhile,inRenaissanceItaly,anewperiodinthehistoryoftranslationhadopenedinFlorencewiththearrival,atthecourtofCosimode'Medici,oftheByzantinescholarGeorgiusGemistusPlethoshortlybeforethefallofConstantinopletotheTurks(1453).ALatintranslationofPlato'sworkswasundertakenbyMarsilioFicino.ThisandErasmus'LatineditionoftheNewTestamentledtoanewattitudetotranslation.Forthefirsttime,readersdemandedrigorofrendering,asphilosophicalandreligiousbeliefsdependedontheexactwordsofPlato,AristotleandJesus.[103] Non-scholarlyliterature,however,continuedtorelyonadaptation.France'sPléiade,England'sTudorpoets,andtheElizabethantranslatorsadaptedthemesbyHorace,Ovid,PetrarchandmodernLatinwriters,forminganewpoeticstyleonthosemodels.TheEnglishpoetsandtranslatorssoughttosupplyanewpublic,createdbytheriseofamiddleclassandthedevelopmentofprinting,withworkssuchastheoriginalauthorswouldhavewritten,hadtheybeenwritinginEnglandinthatday.[103] TheElizabethanperiodoftranslationsawconsiderableprogressbeyondmereparaphrasetowardanidealofstylisticequivalence,buteventotheendofthisperiod,whichactuallyreachedtothemiddleofthe17thcentury,therewasnoconcernforverbalaccuracy.[104] Inthesecondhalfofthe17thcentury,thepoetJohnDrydensoughttomakeVirgilspeak"inwordssuchashewouldprobablyhavewrittenifhewerelivingandanEnglishman".AsgreatasDryden'spoemis,however,oneisreadingDryden,andnotexperiencingtheRomanpoet'sconcision.Similarly,HomerarguablysuffersfromAlexanderPope'sendeavortoreducetheGreekpoet's"wildparadise"toorder.BothworksliveonasworthyEnglishepics,morethanasapointofaccesstotheLatinorGreek.[104] EdwardFitzGerald Throughoutthe18thcentury,thewatchwordoftranslatorswaseaseofreading.Whatevertheydidnotunderstandinatext,orthoughtmightborereaders,theyomitted.Theycheerfullyassumedthattheirownstyleofexpressionwasthebest,andthattextsshouldbemadetoconformtoitintranslation.Forscholarshiptheycarednomorethanhadtheirpredecessors,andtheydidnotshrinkfrommakingtranslationsfromtranslationsinthirdlanguages,orfromlanguagesthattheyhardlyknew,or—asinthecaseofJamesMacpherson's"translations"ofOssian—fromtextsthatwereactuallyofthe"translator's"owncomposition.[104] BenjaminJowett The19thcenturybroughtnewstandardsofaccuracyandstyle.Inregardtoaccuracy,observesJ.M.Cohen,thepolicybecame"thetext,thewholetext,andnothingbutthetext",exceptforanybawdypassagesandtheadditionofcopiousexplanatoryfootnotes.[l]Inregardtostyle,theVictorians'aim,achievedthroughfar-reachingmetaphrase(literality)orpseudo-metaphrase,wastoconstantlyremindreadersthattheywerereadingaforeignclassic.Anexceptionwastheoutstandingtranslationinthisperiod,EdwardFitzGerald'sRubaiyatofOmarKhayyam(1859),whichachieveditsOrientalflavorlargelybyusingPersiannamesanddiscreetBiblicalechoesandactuallydrewlittleofitsmaterialfromthePersianoriginal.[104] Inadvanceofthe20thcentury,anewpatternwassetin1871byBenjaminJowett,whotranslatedPlatointosimple,straightforwardlanguage.Jowett'sexamplewasnotfollowed,however,untilwellintothenewcentury,whenaccuracyratherthanstylebecametheprincipalcriterion.[104] Moderntranslation[edit] Asalanguageevolves,textsinanearlierversionofthelanguage—originaltexts,oroldtranslations—maybecomedifficultformodernreaderstounderstand.Suchatextmaythereforebetranslatedintomoremodernlanguage,producinga"moderntranslation"(e.g.,a"modernEnglishtranslation"or"modernizedtranslation"). SuchmodernrenderingisappliedeithertoliteraturefromclassicallanguagessuchasLatinorGreek,notablytotheBible(see"ModernEnglishBibletranslations"),ortoliteraturefromanearlierstageofthesamelanguage,aswiththeworksofWilliamShakespeare(whicharelargelyunderstandablebyamodernaudience,thoughwithsomedifficulty)orwithGeoffreyChaucer'sMiddle-EnglishCanterburyTales(whichisunderstandabletomostmodernreadersonlythroughheavydependenceonfootnotes).In2015theOregonShakespeareFestivalcommissionedprofessionaltranslationoftheentireShakespearecanon,includingdisputedworkssuchasEdwardIII,[105]intocontemporaryvernacularEnglish;in2019,off-off-Broadway,thecanonwaspremieredinamonth-longseriesofstagedreadings.[106] Moderntranslationisapplicabletoanylanguagewithalongliteraryhistory.Forexample,inJapanesethe11th-centuryTaleofGenjiisgenerallyreadinmoderntranslation(see"Genji:modernreadership"). Moderntranslationofteninvolvesliteraryscholarshipandtextualrevision,asthereisfrequentlynotonesinglecanonicaltext.ThisisparticularlynoteworthyinthecaseoftheBibleandShakespeare,wheremodernscholarshipcanresultinsubstantivetextualchanges. AnnaNorthwrites:"Translatingthelong-deadlanguageHomerused—avariantofancientGreekcalledHomericGreek—intocontemporaryEnglishisnoeasytask,andtranslatorsbringtheirownskills,opinions,andstylisticsensibilitiestothetext.Theresultisthateverytranslationisdifferent,almostanewpoeminitself."AnexampleisEmilyWilson's2017translationofHomer'sOdyssey,wherebyconsciouschoiceWilson"laysbarethemoralsofitstimeandplace,andinvitesustoconsiderhowdifferenttheyarefromourown,andhowsimilar."[107] Moderntranslationmeetswithoppositionfromsometraditionalists.InEnglish,somereadersprefertheAuthorizedKingJamesVersionoftheBibletomoderntranslations,andShakespeareintheoriginalofca.1600tomoderntranslations. Anoppositeprocessinvolvestranslatingmodernliteratureintoclassicallanguages,forthepurposeofextensivereading(forexamples,see"ListofLatintranslationsofmodernliterature"). Poetry[edit] Hofstadter Jakobson Nabokov Viewsonthepossibilityofsatisfactorilytranslatingpoetryshowabroadspectrum,dependingpartlyonthedegreeoflatitudedesiredbythetranslatorinregardtoapoem'sformalfeatures(rhythm,rhyme,verseform,etc.),butalsorelatingtohowmuchofthesuggestivenessandimageryinthehostpoemcanberecapturedorapproximatedinthetargetlanguage.DouglasHofstadter,inhis1997book,LeTonbeaudeMarot,arguedthatagoodtranslationofapoemmustconveyasmuchaspossiblenotonlyofitsliteralmeaningbutalsoofitsformandstructure(meter,rhymeoralliterationscheme,etc.).[108] TheRussian-bornlinguistandsemioticianRomanJakobson,however,hadinhis1959paper"OnLinguisticAspectsofTranslation",declaredthat"poetrybydefinition[is]untranslatable".VladimirNabokov,anotherRussian-bornauthor,tookaviewsimilartoJakobson's.Heconsideredrhymed,metrical,versedpoetrytobeinprincipleuntranslatableandthereforerenderedhis1964EnglishtranslationofAlexanderPushkin'sEugeneOnegininprose. Hofstadter,inLeTonbeaudeMarot,criticizedNabokov'sattitudetowardversetranslation.In1999HofstadterpublishedhisowntranslationofEugeneOnegin,inverseform. However,ahostofmorecontemporaryliterarytranslatorsofpoetryleantowardAlexandervonHumboldt'snotionoflanguageasa"thirduniverse"existing"midwaybetweenthephenomenalrealityofthe'empiricalworld'andtheinternalizedstructuresofconsciousness."[109]PerhapsthisiswhatpoetSholehWolpé,translatorofthe12th-centuryIranianepicpoemTheConferenceoftheBirds,meanswhenshewrites:Twelfth-centuryPersianandcontemporaryEnglishareasdifferentasskyandsea.ThebestIcandoasapoetistoreflectoneintotheother. Theseacanreflecttheskywithitsmovingstars,shiftingclouds,gestationsofthemoon,andmigratingbirds—butultimatelytheseaisnotthesky.Bynature,itisliquid.Itripples.Therearewaves.Ifyouareafishlivinginthesea,youcanonlyunderstandtheskyifitsreflectionbecomespartofthewater.Therefore,thistranslationofTheConferenceoftheBirds,whilefaithfultotheoriginaltext,aimsatitsre-creationintoastilllivingandbreathingworkofliterature.[110]PoetSherodSantoswrites:"Thetaskisnottoreproducethecontent,butwiththeflintandthesteelofone'sownlanguagetosparkwhatRobertLowellhascalled'thefireandfinishoftheoriginal.'"[111] AccordingtoWalterBenjamin:Whileapoet'swordsendureinhisownlanguage,eventhegreatesttranslationisdestinedtobecomepartofthegrowthofitsownlanguageandeventuallytoperishwithitsrenewal.Translationissofarremovedfrombeingthesterileequationoftwodeadlanguagesthatofallliteraryformsitistheonechargedwiththespecialmissionofwatchingoverthematuringprocessoftheoriginallanguageandthebirthpangsofitsown.[112]GregoryHays,inthecourseofdiscussingRomanadaptedtranslationsofancientGreekliterature,makesapprovingreferencetosomeviewsonthetranslatingofpoetryexpressedbyDavidBellos,anaccomplishedFrench-to-Englishtranslator.Hayswrites: Amongtheidéesreçues[receivedideas]skeweredbyDavidBellosistheoldsawthat"poetryiswhatgetslostintranslation."ThesayingisoftenattributedtoRobertFrost,butasBellosnotes,theattributionisasdubiousastheideaitself.Atranslationisanassemblageofwords,andassuchitcancontainasmuchoraslittlepoetryasanyothersuchassemblage.TheJapaneseevenhaveaword(chōyaku,roughly"hypertranslation")todesignateaversionthatdeliberatelyimprovesontheoriginal.[113] Booktitles[edit] Book-titletranslationscanbeeitherdescriptiveorsymbolic.Descriptivebooktitles,forexampleAntoinedeSaint-Exupéry'sLePetitPrince(TheLittlePrince),aremeanttobeinformative,andcannametheprotagonist,andindicatethethemeofthebook.AnexampleofasymbolicbooktitleisStiegLarsson'sTheGirlwiththeDragonTattoo,whoseoriginalSwedishtitleisMänsomhatarkvinnor(MenWhoHateWomen).Suchsymbolicbooktitlesusuallyindicatethetheme,issues,oratmosphereofthework. Whentranslatorsareworkingwithlongbooktitles,thetranslatedtitlesareoftenshorterandindicatethethemeofthebook.[114] Plays[edit] Thetranslationofplaysposesmanyproblemssuchastheaddedelementofactors,speechduration,translationliteralness,andtherelationshipbetweentheartsofdramaandacting.Successfulplaytranslatorsareabletocreatelanguagethatallowstheactorandtheplaywrighttoworktogethereffectively.[115]Playtranslatorsmustalsotakeintoaccountseveralotheraspects:thefinalperformance,varyingtheatricalandactingtraditions,characters'speakingstyles,moderntheatricaldiscourse,andeventheacousticsoftheauditorium,i.e.,whethercertainwordswillhavethesameeffectonthenewaudienceastheyhadontheoriginalaudience.[116] AudiencesinShakespeare'stimeweremoreaccustomedthanmodernplaygoerstoactorshavinglongerstagetime.[117]Moderntranslatorstendtosimplifythesentencestructuresofearlierdramas,whichincludedcompoundsentenceswithintricatehierarchiesofsubordinateclauses.[118][119] Chineseliterature[edit] IntranslatingChineseliterature,translatorsstruggletofindtruefidelityintranslatingintothetargetlanguage.InThePoemBehindthePoem,Barnstonearguesthatpoetry"can'tbemadetosingthroughamathematicsthatdoesn'tfactorinthecreativityofthetranslator".[120] AnotablepieceofworktranslatedintoEnglishistheWenXuan,ananthologyrepresentativeofmajorworksofChineseliterature.Translatingthisworkrequiresahighknowledgeofthegenrespresentedinthebook,suchaspoeticforms,variousprosetypesincludingmemorials,letters,proclamations,praisepoems,edicts,andhistorical,philosophicalandpoliticaldisquisitions,threnodiesandlamentsforthedead,andexaminationessays.Thustheliterarytranslatormustbefamiliarwiththewritings,lives,andthoughtofalargenumberofits130authors,makingtheWenXuanoneofthemostdifficultliteraryworkstotranslate.[121] Sungtexts[edit] Translationofatextthatissunginvocalmusicforthepurposeofsinginginanotherlanguage—sometimescalled"singingtranslation"—iscloselylinkedtotranslationofpoetrybecausemostvocalmusic,atleastintheWesterntradition,issettoverse,especiallyverseinregularpatternswithrhyme.(Sincethelate19thcentury,musicalsettingofproseandfreeversehasalsobeenpracticedinsomeartmusic,thoughpopularmusictendstoremainconservativeinitsretentionofstanzaicformswithorwithoutrefrains.)Arudimentaryexampleoftranslatingpoetryforsingingischurchhymns,suchastheGermanchoralestranslatedintoEnglishbyCatherineWinkworth.[m] Translationofsungtextsisgenerallymuchmorerestrictivethantranslationofpoetry,becauseintheformerthereislittleornofreedomtochoosebetweenaversifiedtranslationandatranslationthatdispenseswithversestructure.Onemightmodifyoromitrhymeinasingingtranslation,buttheassignmentofsyllablestospecificnotesintheoriginalmusicalsettingplacesgreatchallengesonthetranslator.Thereistheoptioninprosesungtexts,lesssoinverse,ofaddingordeletingasyllablehereandtherebysubdividingorcombiningnotes,respectively,butevenwithprosetheprocessisalmostlikestrictversetranslationbecauseoftheneedtostickascloselyaspossibletotheoriginalprosodyofthesungmelodicline. Otherconsiderationsinwritingasingingtranslationincluderepetitionofwordsandphrases,theplacementofrestsand/orpunctuation,thequalityofvowelssungonhighnotes,andrhythmicfeaturesofthevocallinethatmaybemorenaturaltotheoriginallanguagethantothetargetlanguage.Asungtranslationmaybeconsiderablyorcompletelydifferentfromtheoriginal,thusresultinginacontrafactum. Translationsofsungtexts—whetheroftheabovetypemeanttobesungorofamoreorlessliteraltypemeanttoberead—arealsousedasaidstoaudiences,singersandconductors,whenaworkisbeingsunginalanguagenotknowntothem.Themostfamiliartypesaretranslationspresentedassubtitlesorsurtitlesprojectedduringoperaperformances,thoseinsertedintoconcertprograms,andthosethataccompanycommercialaudioCDsofvocalmusic.Inaddition,professionalandamateursingersoftensingworksinlanguagestheydonotknow(ordonotknowwell),andtranslationsarethenusedtoenablethemtounderstandthemeaningofthewordstheyaresinging. Religioustexts[edit] Furtherinformation:BibletranslationsandQurantranslations Jerome,patronsaintoftranslatorsandencyclopedists Animportantroleinhistoryhasbeenplayedbytranslationofreligioustexts.Suchtranslationsmaybeinfluencedbytensionbetweenthetextandthereligiousvaluesthetranslatorswishtoconvey.[122]Forexample,BuddhistmonkswhotranslatedtheIndiansutrasintoChineseoccasionallyadjustedtheirtranslationstobetterreflectChina'sdistinctculture,emphasizingnotionssuchasfilialpiety. OneofthefirstrecordedinstancesoftranslationintheWestwasthe3rdcenturyBCErenderingofsomebooksofthebiblicalOldTestamentfromHebrewintoKoineGreek.Thetranslationisknownasthe"Septuagint",anamethatreferstothesupposedlyseventytranslators(seventy-two,insomeversions)whowerecommissionedtotranslatetheBibleatAlexandria,Egypt.Accordingtolegend,eachtranslatorworkedinsolitaryconfinementinhisowncell,andallseventyversionsprovedidentical.TheSeptuagintbecamethesourcetextforlatertranslationsintomanylanguages,includingLatin,Coptic,Armenian,andGeorgian. Stillconsideredoneofthegreatesttranslatorsinhistory,forhavingrenderedtheBibleintoLatin,isJerome(347–420CE),thepatronsaintoftranslators.ForcenturiestheRomanCatholicChurchusedhistranslation(knownastheVulgate),thougheventhistranslationstirredcontroversy.BycontrastwithJerome'scontemporary,AugustineofHippo(354–430CE),whoendorsedprecisetranslation,Jeromebelievedinadaptation,andsometimesinvention,inordertomoreeffectivelybringacrossthemeaning.Jerome'scolorfulVulgatetranslationoftheBibleincludessomecrucialinstancesof"overdetermination".Forexample,Isaiah'sprophecyannouncingthattheSaviorwillbebornofavirgin,usestheword'almah,whichisalsousedtodescribethedancinggirlsatSolomon'scourt,andsimplymeansyoungandnubile.Jerome,writesMarinaWarner,translatesitasvirgo,"addingdivineauthoritytothevirulentcultofsexualdisgustthatshapedChristianmoraltheology(the[Moslem]Quran,freefromthislinguistictrap,doesnotconnectMariam/Mary'smiraculousnaturewithmoralhorrorofsex)."TheapplethatEveofferedtoAdam,accordingtoMarkPolizzotti,couldequallywellhavebeenanapricot,orange,orbanana;butJeromelikedthepunmalus/malum(apple/evil).[35] PopeFrancishassuggestedthatthephrase"leadusnotintotemptation",intheLord'sPrayerfoundintheGospelsofMatthew(thefirstGospel,writtenc.80–90CE)andLuke(thethirdGospel,writtenc.80–110CE),shouldmoreproperlybetranslated,"donotletusfallintotemptation",commentingthatGoddoesnotleadpeopleintotemptation—Satandoes.[n]SomeimportantearlyChristianauthorsinterpretedtheBible'sGreektextandJerome'sLatinVulgatesimilarlytoPopeFrancis.A.J.B.Higgins[124]in1943showedthatamongtheearliestChristianauthors,theunderstandingandeventhetextofthisdevotionalverseunderwentconsiderablechanges.Theseancientwriterssuggestthat,eveniftheGreekandLatintextsareleftunmodified,somethinglike"donotletusfall"couldbeanacceptableEnglishrendering.HigginscitedTertullian,theearliestoftheLatinChurchFathers(c.155–c.240CE,"donotallowustobeled")andCyprian(c.200–258CE,"donotallowustobeledintotemptation").Alaterauthor,Ambrose(C.340–397CE),followedCyprian'sinterpretation.AugustineofHippo(354–430),familiarwithJerome'sLatinVulgaterendering,observedthat"manypeople...sayitthisway:'anddonotallowustobeledintotemptation.'"[125] In863CEthebrothersSaintsCyrilandMethodius,theByzantineEmpire's"ApostlestotheSlavs",begantranslatingpartsoftheBibleintotheOldChurchSlavoniclanguage,usingtheGlagoliticscriptthattheyhaddevised,basedontheGreekalphabet. TheperiodsprecedingandcontemporarywiththeProtestantReformationsawtranslationsoftheBibleintovernacular(local)Europeanlanguages—adevelopmentthatcontributedtoWesternChristianity'ssplitintoRomanCatholicismandProtestantismoverdisparitiesbetweenCatholicandProtestantrenderingsofcrucialwordsandpassages(andduetoaProtestant-perceivedneedtoreformtheRomanCatholicChurch).Lastingeffectsonthereligions,cultures,andlanguagesoftheirrespectivecountrieswereexertedbysuchBibletranslationsasMartinLuther'sintoGerman(theNewTestament,1522),JakubWujek'sintoPolish(1599,asrevisedbytheJesuits),andWilliamTyndale's(NewTestament,1526andrevisions)andtheKingJamesVersionintoEnglish(1611). Mistranslation:Michelangelo'shornedMoses EffortstotranslatetheBibleintoEnglishhadtheirmartyrs.WilliamTyndale(c.1494–1536)wasconvictedofheresyatAntwerp,wasstrangledtodeathwhiletiedatthestake,andthenhisdeadbodywasburned.[126]Earlier,JohnWycliffe(c.mid-1320s–1384)hadmanagedtodieanaturaldeath,but30yearslatertheCouncilofConstancein1415declaredhimahereticanddecreedthathisworksandearthlyremainsshouldbeburned;theorder,confirmedbyPopeMartinV,wascarriedoutin1428,andWycliffe'scorpsewasexhumedandburnedandtheashescastintotheRiverSwift.Debateandreligiousschismoverdifferenttranslationsofreligioustextscontinue,asdemonstratedby,forexample,theKingJamesOnlymovement. AfamousmistranslationofaBiblicaltextistherenderingoftheHebrewwordקֶרֶן(keren),whichhasseveralmeanings,as"horn"inacontextwhereitmoreplausiblymeans"beamoflight":asaresult,forcenturiesartists,includingsculptorMichelangelo,haverenderedMosestheLawgiverwithhornsgrowingfromhisforehead. Chinesetranslation,verses33–34ofQuran'ssurah(chapter)36 SuchfallibilityofthetranslationprocesshascontributedtotheIslamicworld'sambivalenceabouttranslatingtheQuran(alsospelledKoran)fromtheoriginalArabic,asreceivedbytheprophetMuhammadfromAllah(God)throughtheangelGabrielincrementallybetween609and632CE,theyearofMuhammad'sdeath.Duringprayers,theQuran,asthemiraculousandinimitablewordofAllah,isrecitedonlyinArabic.However,asof1936,ithadbeentranslatedintoatleast102languages.[127] AfundamentaldifficultyintranslatingtheQuranaccuratelystemsfromthefactthatanArabicword,likeaHebreworAramaicword,mayhavearangeofmeanings,dependingoncontext.Thisissaidtobealinguisticfeature,particularlyofallSemiticlanguages,thataddstotheusualsimilardifficultiesencounteredintranslatingbetweenanytwolanguages.[127]Thereisalwaysanelementofhumanjudgment—ofinterpretation—involvedinunderstandingandtranslatingatext.MuslimsregardanytranslationoftheQuranasbutonepossibleinterpretationoftheQuranic(Classical)Arabictext,andnotasafullequivalentofthatdivinelycommunicatedoriginal.Hencesuchatranslationisoftencalledan"interpretation"ratherthanatranslation.[128] Tocomplicatemattersfurther,aswithotherlanguages,themeaningsandusagesofsomeexpressionshavechangedovertime,betweentheClassicalArabicoftheQuran,andmodernArabic.ThusamodernArabicspeakermaymisinterpretthemeaningofawordorpassageintheQuran.Moreover,theinterpretationofaQuranicpassagewillalsodependonthehistoriccontextofMuhammad'slifeandofhisearlycommunity.Properlyresearchingthatcontextrequiresadetailedknowledgeofhadithandsirah,whicharethemselvesvastandcomplextexts.Hence,analogouslytothetranslatingofChineseliterature,anattemptatanaccuratetranslationoftheQuranrequiresaknowledgenotonlyoftheArabiclanguageandofthetargetlanguage,includingtheirrespectiveevolutions,butalsoadeepunderstandingofthetwoculturesinvolved. Experimentalliterature[edit] Experimentalliterature,suchasKathyAcker’snovelDonQuixote(1986)andGianninaBraschi’snovelYo-YoBoing!(1998),featuresatranslativewritingthathighlightsdiscomfortsoftheinterlingualandtranslingualencountersandliterarytranslationasacreativepractice.[129][130]Theseauthorsweavetheirowntranslationsintotheirtexts. Acker'sPostmodernfictionbothfragmentsandpreservesthematerialityofCatullus’sLatintextinwaysthatteaseoutitssemanticsandsyntaxwithoutwhollyappropriatingthem,amethodthatunsettlesthenotionofanyfixedandfinishedtranslation.[129] WhereasBraschi'strilogyofexperimentalworks(EmpireofDreams,1988;Yo-YoBoing!,1998,andUnitedStatesofBanana,2011)dealswiththeverysubjectoftranslation.[131]HertrilogypresentstheevolutionoftheSpanishlanguagethroughloosetranslationsofdramatic,poetic,andphilosophicalwritingsfromtheMedieval,GoldenAge,andModernisterasintocontemporaryCaribbean,LatinAmerican,andNuyoricanSpanishexpressions.Braschi’stranslationsofclassicaltextsinIberianSpanish(intootherregionalandhistoricallinguisticandpoeticframeworks)challengetheconceptofnationallanguages.[132] Sciencefiction[edit] Sciencefictionbeingagenrewitharecognizablesetofconventionsandliterarygenealogies,inwhichlanguageoftenincludesneologisms,neosemes,[clarificationneeded]andinventedlanguages,techno-scientificandpseudoscientificvocabulary,[133]andfictionalrepresentationofthetranslationprocess,[134][135]thetranslationofscience-fictiontextsinvolvesspecificconcerns.[136]Thescience-fictiontranslatortendstoacquirespecificcompetencesandassumeadistinctivepublishingandculturalagency.[137][138]Asinthecaseofothermass-fictiongenres,thisprofessionalspecializationandroleoftenisnotrecognizedbypublishersandscholars.[139] Translationofsciencefictionaccountsforthetransnationalnatureofsciencefiction'srepertoireofsharedconventionsandtropes.AfterWorldWarII,manyEuropeancountriesweresweptbyawaveoftranslationsfromtheEnglish.[140][141]DuetotheprominenceofEnglishasasourcelanguage,theuseofpseudonymsandpseudotranslationsbecamecommonincountriessuchasItaly[136]andHungary,[142]andEnglishhasoftenbeenusedasavehicularlanguagetotranslatefromlanguagessuchasChineseandJapanese.[143] Morerecently,theinternationalmarketinscience-fictiontranslationshasseenanincreasingpresenceofsourcelanguagesotherthanEnglish.[143] Technicaltranslation[edit] Mainarticle:Technicaltranslation Technicaltranslationrendersdocumentssuchasmanuals,instructionsheets,internalmemos,minutes,financialreports,andotherdocumentsforalimitedaudience(whoaredirectlyaffectedbythedocument)andwhoseusefullifeisoftenlimited.Thus,auserguideforaparticularmodelofrefrigeratorisusefulonlyfortheowneroftherefrigerator,andwillremainusefulonlyaslongasthatrefrigeratormodelisinuse.Similarly,softwaredocumentationgenerallypertainstoaparticularsoftware,whoseapplicationsareusedonlybyacertainclassofusers.[144] Seealso[edit] Languagesportal AmericanLiteraryTranslatorsAssociation Appliedlinguistics Back-translation Bibletranslations Bilingualdictionary Bilingualpun Bilingualism Calque Certifiedtranslation Chinesetranslationtheory Codemixing Contrastivelinguistics Dictionary-basedmachinetranslation Diglossia EuropeanMaster'sinTranslation Example-basedmachinetranslation Falsecognate "Falsefriend" Firstlanguage HinditoPunjabiMachineTranslationSystem Homophonictranslation Humourintranslation("howlers") Hybridword Indirecttranslation InternationalFederationofTranslators Interpretingnotes Inttranet Languagebrokering Languageindustry Languageinterpretation Languagelocalisation Languageprofessional Languagetransfer Legaltranslation Lexicography Linguafranca Linguisticvalidation Listoftranslators Listofwomentranslators Literaltranslation Machinetranslation Medicaltranslation Metaphrase Mobiletranslation Multilingualism NationalTranslationMission(NTM) Neuralmachinetranslation Paraphrase Phono-semanticmatching Postediting Pre-editing Pseudotranslation Register(sociolinguistics) Rule-basedmachinetranslation Secondlanguage Self-translation Skopostheory Statisticalmachinetranslation Syntax Technicaltranslation Transcription(linguistics) Translatingforlegalequivalence Translationassociations Translationcriticism Translationmemory Translationscholars TranslationservicesoftheEuropeanParliament Translationstudies Translation-qualitystandards Transliteration Untranslatability Vehicularlanguage Notes[edit] ^TheDutchoverzetting(noun)andoverzetten(verb)inthesenseof"translation"and"totranslate",respectively,areconsideredarchaic.Whileomzettingmaystillbefoundinearlymodernliteraryworks,ithasbeenreplacedentirelyinmodernDutchbyvertaling. ^"Idealconcepts"areusefulaswellinotherfields,suchasphysicsandchemistry,whichincludetheconceptsofperfectlysolidbodies,perfectlyrigidbodies,perfectlyplasticbodies,perfectlyblackbodies,perfectcrystals,perfectfluids,andperfectgases.[11] ^FrenchphilosopherandwriterGillesMénage(1613-92)commentedontranslationsbyhumanistPerrotNicolasd'Ablancourt(1606-64):"TheyremindmeofawomanwhomIgreatlylovedinTours,whowasbeautifulbutunfaithful."[36] ^Cf.asupposedcommentbyWinstonChurchill:"ThisisthetypeofpedantryupwithwhichIwillnotput." ^"Interpretation"inthissenseistobedistinguishedfromthefunctionofan"interpreter"whotranslatesorallyorbytheuseofsignlanguage. ^RebeccaArmstrongwrites:"Atranslatorhastomakechoices;anywordtheychoosewillcarryitsownnuance,aparticularsetofinterpretations,implicationsandassociations.[Oftenthetranslator]need[s]torenderthesame[...]worddifferentlyindifferentcontexts."[63] ^GeorgeBernardShaw,aspiringtothebestinterpretationofliteraryworks,wroteintheprefacetohis1901volume,ThreePlaysforPuritans:"IwouldgivehalfadozenofShakespeare'splaysforoneoftheprefacesheoughttohavewritten." ^See"Poetry",below,forasimilarobservationconcerningtheoccasionalsuperiorityofthetranslationovertheoriginal. ^ElsewhereMerwinrecallsPoundsaying:"[A]tyourageyoudon'thaveanythingtowriteabout.Youmaythinkyoudo,butyoudon't.Sogettoworktranslating.TheProvençalistherealsource...."[77] ^Forexample,inPolish,a"translation"is"przekład"or"tłumaczenie."Both"translator"and"interpreter"are"tłumacz."Foratimeinthe18thcentury,however,for"translator,"somewritersusedaword,"przekładowca,"thatisnolongerinuse.[79] ^J.M.Cohenobserves:"Scientifictranslationistheaimofanagethatwouldreduceallactivitiestotechniques.Itisimpossiblehowevertoimaginealiterary-translationmachinelesscomplexthanthehumanbrainitself,withallitsknowledge,reading,anddiscrimination."[92] ^Forinstance,HenryBenedictMackey'stranslationofSt.FrancisdeSales's"TreatiseontheLoveofGod"consistentlyomitsthesaint'sanalogiescomparingGodtoanursingmother,referencestoBiblestoriessuchastherapeofTamar,andsoforth. ^Foranotherexampleofpoetrytranslation,includingtranslationofsungtexts,seeRhymesfromRussia. ^MJCWarren,LecturerinBiblicalandReligiousStudies,UniversityofSheffield,pointsout(moreexplicitlythanCharlesMcNamara)thatLukegivesashorterversionofJesus'sLord'sPrayer,leavingofftherequestthatGod"deliverusfromevil";that(asCharlesMcNamaraalsosays)accuratetranslationisnotthequestionhere;andthattheBiblerecordsanumberofincidentswhenGodcommandsevilactions,suchasthatAbrahamkillhisonlyson,Isaac(whoseexecutioniscanceledatthelastmoment).[123] References[edit] ^TheOxfordCompaniontotheEnglishLanguage,NamitBhatia,ed.,1992,pp.1,051–54. ^ChristopherKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",ThePolishReview,vol.XXVIII,no.2,1983,pp.84-87. ^W.J.Hutchins,EarlyYearsinMachineTranslation:MemoirsandBiographiesofPioneers,Amsterdam,JohnBenjamins,2000. ^M.Snell-Hornby,TheTurnsofTranslationStudies:NewParadigmsorShiftingViewpoints?,Philadelphia,JohnBenjamins,2006,p.133. ^"RosettaStone",TheColumbiaEncyclopedia,5thed.,1994,p.2,361. ^Vélez,Fabio.AntesdeBabel.pp. 3–21. ^abcdefChristopherKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",p.83. ^TheDutchfor"translation"isvertaling,fromtheverbvertalen,itselfderivedfromtaal,"language",plusprefixver-.TheAfrikaansfor"translation",derivedfromtheDutch,isvertaling. ^"overzetting"inWoordenboekderNederlandscheTaal,IvdNT ^abcdefKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",p.84. ^WładysławTatarkiewicz,OnPerfection(firstpublishedinPolishin1976asOdoskonałości);EnglishtranslationbyChristopherKaspareksubsequentlyserializedin1979–1981inDialecticsandHumanism:ThePolishPhilosophicalQuarterly,andreprintedinWładysławTatarkiewicz,OnPerfection,WarsawUniversityPress,1992. ^Typically,analyticlanguages. ^Typically,syntheticlanguages. ^Someexamplesofthisaredescribedinthearticle,"Translatingthe17thofMayintoEnglishandotherhorrorstories",retrieved15April2010. ^abcKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",p.85. ^Kasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",pp.85-86. ^L.G.Kelly,citedinKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",p.86. ^abKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",p.86. ^CitedbyKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",p.87,fromIgnacyKrasicki,"Otłumaczeniuksiąg"("OnTranslatingBooks"),inDzieławierszemiprozą(WorksinVerseandProse),1803,reprintedinEdwardBalcerzan,ed.,Pisarzepolscyosztuceprzekładu,1440–1974:Antologia(PolishWritersontheArtofTranslation,1440–1974:anAnthology),p.79. ^J.M.Cohen,"Translation",EncyclopediaAmericana,1986,vol.27,p.12. ^Bakir,K.H.1984.ArabizationofHigherEducationinIraq.PhDthesis,UniversityofBath. ^Wakim,K.G.1944.ArabicMedicineinLiterature.BulletinoftheMedicalLibraryAssociation32(1),January:96-104. ^Hitti,P.K.1970.HistoryoftheArabsfromtheEarliestTimestothePresent.10thed.Basingstoke,UK:PalgraveMacmillan. ^Monastra,Y.,andW.J.Kopycki.2009.Libraries.In:TheOxfordEncyclopediaoftheModernIslamicWorld.editedbyJ.L.Esposito,2nded.,vol.3,424-427.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. ^Hussain,S.V.1960.OrganizationandAdministrationofMuslimLibraries:From786A.D.to1492A.D.QuarterlyJournalofthePakistanLibraryAssociation1(1),July:8-11. ^ElGabri,S.A.1984.TheArabExperimentinTranslation.NewDelhi,India:Bookman’sClub. ^PerryLink,"AMagicianofChinesePoetry"(reviewofEliotWeinberger,withanafterwordbyOctavioPaz,19WaysofLookingatWangWei(withMoreWays),NewDirections;andEliotWeinberger,TheGhostsofBirds,NewDirections),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIII,no.18(24November2016),pp.49–50. ^abPerryLink,"AMagicianofChinesePoetry",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIII,no.18(November24,2016),p.49. ^abcdePerryLink,"AMagicianofChinesePoetry",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIII,no.18(24November2016),p.50. ^abChristopherdeBellaigue,"DreamsofIslamicLiberalism"(reviewofMarwaElshakry,ReadingDarwininArabic,1860–1950,UniversityofChicagoPress),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXII,no.10(June4,2015),p.77. ^MaliseRuthven,"TheIslamicRoadtotheModernWorld"(reviewofChristopherdeBellaigue,TheIslamicEnlightenment:TheStrugglebetweenFaithandReason,1798toModernTimes,Liveright;andWaelAbu-'Uksa,FreedomintheArabWorld:ConceptsandIdeologiesinArabicThoughtintheNineteenthCentury,CambridgeUniversityPress),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.11(22June2017),p.22. ^MaliseRuthven,"TheIslamicRoadtotheModernWorld"(reviewofChristopherdeBellaigue,TheIslamicEnlightenment:TheStrugglebetweenFaithandReason,1798toModernTimes,Liveright;andWaelAbu-'Uksa,FreedomintheArabWorld:ConceptsandIdeologiesinArabicThoughtintheNineteenthCentury,CambridgeUniversityPress),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.11(22June2017),p.24. ^ChristopherdeBellaigue,"DreamsofIslamicLiberalism"(reviewofMarwaElshakry,ReadingDarwininArabic,1860–1950),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXII,no.10(4June2015),p.77–78. ^ChristopherdeBellaigue,"DreamsofIslamicLiberalism"(reviewofMarwaElshakry,ReadingDarwininArabic,1860–1950),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXII,no.10(4June2015),p.78. ^abMarinaWarner,"ThePoliticsofTranslation"(areviewofKateBriggs,ThisLittleArt,2017;MireilleGansel,translatedbyRosSchwartz,2017;MarkPolizzotti,SympathyfortheTraitor:ATranslationManifesto,2018;BoydTonkin,ed.,The100BestNovelsinTranslation,2018;CliveScott,TheWorkofLiteraryTranslation,2018),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.40,no.19(11October2018),p.22. ^QuotedinAmparoHurtadoAlbir,Lanotiondefidélitéentraduction(TheIdeaofFidelityinTranslation),Paris,DidierÉrudition,1990,p.231. ^Dryden,John."PrefacetoSylvae".Bartelby.com.Retrieved27April2015. ^AntoineBerman,L'épreuvedel'étranger,1984. ^LawrenceVenuti,"CalltoAction",inTheTranslator'sInvisibility,1994. ^ChristopherKasparek,"TheTranslator'sEndlessToil",pp.83-87. ^"HowtoOvercomeThese5ChallengesofEnglishtoSpanishTranslation".JrLanguage.23June2017.Retrieved30September2017. ^Crystal,Scott."BackTranslation:Samequestions–differentcontinent"(PDF).Communicate(Winter2004):5.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on20May2006.Retrieved20November2007. ^"BackTranslationforQualityControlofInformedConsentForms"(PDF).JournalofClinicalResearchBestPractices.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on5May2006.Retrieved1February2006. ^MarkTwain,TheJumpingFrog:InEnglish,TheninFrench,andThenClawedBackintoaCivilizedLanguageOnceMorebyPatient,UnremuneratedToil,illustratedbyF.Strothman,NewYorkandLondon,Harper&Brothers,Publishers,MCMIII[1903. ^CzesławMiłosz,TheHistoryofPolishLiterature,pp.193–94. ^Gilman,E.Ward(ed.).1989."ABriefHistoryofEnglishUsage",Webster'sDictionaryofEnglishUsage.Springfield(Mass.):Merriam-Webster,pp.7a-11a,Archived1December2008attheWaybackMachine ^Greene,RobertLane."ThreeBooksfortheGrammarLoverinYourLife :NPR".NPR.org.NPR.Retrieved18May2011. ^RodneyHuddlestonandGeoffreyK.Pullum,2002,TheCambridgeGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage.Cambridge(UK):CambridgeUniversityPress,p.627f. ^Stamper,Kory(1January2017).WordbyWord:TheSecretLifeofDictionaries.KnopfDoubledayPublishingGroup.p. 47.ISBN 9781101870945. ^WillisBarnstone,ThePoeticsofTranslation(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1993),p.228. ^abBasilHatimandJeremyMunday,Translation:AnAdvancedResourceBook,Introduction,pg.10.MiltonPark:Routledge,2004.ISBN 9780415283052 ^BaiLiping,"SimilarityanddifferenceinTranslation."TakenfromSimilarityandDifferenceinTranslation:ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonSimilarityandTranslation,pg.339.Eds.StefanoArduiniandRobertHodgson.2nded.Rome:Edizionidistoriaeletteratura,2007.ISBN 9788884983749 ^CarlineFéRailleur-Dumoulin,ACareerinLanguageTranslation:InsightfulInformationtoGuideYouinYourJourneyasaProfessionalTranslator,pgs.1-2.Bloomington:AuthorHouse,2009.ISBN 9781467052047 ^abcPokorn,NikeK.(2007)."Indefenseoffuzziness".Target.19(2):190–191.doi:10.1075/target.19.2.10pok. 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^EmilyWilson,"Ah,howmiserable!"(reviewofthreeseparatetranslationsofTheOresteiabyAeschylus:byOliverTaplin,Liveright,November2018;byJeffreyScottBernstein,Carcanet,April2020;andbyDavidMulroy,Wisconsin,April2018),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.42,no.19(8October2020),pp.9–12,14.(Quotation:p.14.) ^StephenGreenblatt,"CanWeEverMasterKingLear?",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.3(23February2017),p.36. ^RebeccaArmstrong,"AllKindsofUnlucky"(reviewofTheAeneid,translatedbyShadiBartsch,Profile,November2020,ISBN 9781788162678,400pp.),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.43,no.5(4March2021),pp.35–36.(Quotation:p.35.) ^MarkPolizzotti,quotedinMarinaWarner,"ThePoliticsofTranslation"(areviewofKateBriggs,ThisLittleArt,2017;MireilleGansel,TranslationasTranshumance,translatedbyRosSchwartz,2017;MarkPolizzotti,SympathyfortheTraitor:ATranslationManifesto,2018;BoydTonkin,ed.,The100BestNovelsinTranslation,2018;CliveScott,TheWorkofLiteraryTranslation,2018),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.40,no.19(11October2018),p.21. 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^Wilson,Emily,"ThePleasuresofTranslation"(reviewofMarkPolizzotti,SympathyfortheTraitor:ATranslationManifesto,MITPress,2018,182pp.),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXV,no.9(24May2018),p.47. ^PaulTaylor,"InsanelyComplicated,HopelesslyInadequate"(reviewofBrianCantwellSmith,ThePromiseofArtificialIntelligence:ReckoningandJudgment,MIT,October2019,ISBN 9780262043045,157pp.;GaryMarcusandErnestDavis,RebootingAI:BuildingArtificialIntelligenceWeCanTrust,Ballantine,September2019,ISBN 9781524748258,304pp.;JudeaPearlandDanaMackenzie,TheBookofWhy:TheNewScienceofCauseandEffect,Penguin,May2019,ISBN 9780141982410,418pp.),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.43,no.2(21January2021),pp.37–39.PaulTaylorquotation:p.39. ^Anderson,Alison(14May2013)."WhereAretheWomeninTranslation?".WordsWithoutBorders.Retrieved28July2018. ^"WomeninTranslation:AnInterviewwithMeytalRadzinski".25July2016. ^"MeytalRadzinski-TheBookseller".www.thebookseller.com. ^Radzinski,Meytal(3July2018)."Biblibio:Exclusionisachoice-Biasin"Bestof"lists". ^J.M.Cohen,p.12. ^J.MCohen,pp.12-13. ^abcdeJ.M.Cohen,p.13. ^abcdeJ.M.Cohen,p.14. ^Schuessler,Jennifer(30September2016)."TranslatingShakespeare?36PlaywrightsTakeththeBigRisk".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved11August2019. ^Schuessler,Jennifer(3April2019)."AShakespeareFestivalPresentsModernTranslations.CuetheDebate(Again)".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved11August2019. ^North,Anna(20November2017)."Historically,mentranslatedtheOdyssey.Here'swhathappenedwhenawomantookthejob".Vox.Retrieved9September2020. ^AdiscussionofHofstadter'sotherwiselatitudinarianviewsontranslationisfoundinTonyDokoupil,"Translation:PardonMyFrench:YouSuckatThis,"Newsweek,18May2009,p.10. ^Steiner,George.(2013).AfterBabel :AspectsofLanguageandTranslation.OpenRoadMedia.p. 85.ISBN 978-1-4804-1185-2.OCLC 892798474. ^ʻAṭṭār,Farīdal-Dīn,-approximately1230(2017).Theconferenceofthebirds.Wolpé,Sholeh(First ed.).NewYork.p. 24.ISBN 978-0-393-29218-3.OCLC 951070853.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Santos,Sherod,1948-(2000).Apoetryoftwominds.UniversityofGeorgiaPress.p. 107.ISBN 0-8203-2204-0.OCLC 43114993.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Benjamin,Walter,1892-1940.(1996–2003).Selectedwritings.Bullock,MarcusPaul,1944-,Jennings,MichaelWilliam.,Eiland,Howard.,Smith,Gary,1954-.Cambridge,Mass.:BelknapPress.p. 256.ISBN 978-0-674-00896-0.OCLC 34705134.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^GregoryHays,"FoundinTranslation"(reviewofDenisFeeney,BeyondGreek:TheBeginningsofLatinLiterature,HarvardUniversityPress),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.11(22June2017),p.58. ^JiříLevý,TheArtofTranslation,Philadelphia,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,2011,p.122. ^Carlson,HarryG.(1964)."ProblemsinPlayTranslation".EducationalTheatreJournal.16(1):55–58[55].doi:10.2307/3204378.JSTOR 3204378. ^JiříLevý,TheArtofTranslation,Philadelphia,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,2011,pp.129-39. ^Carlson,HarryG.(1964)."ProblemsinPlayTranslation".EducationalTheatreJournal.16(1):55–58[56].doi:10.2307/3204378.JSTOR 3204378. ^JiříLevý,TheArtofTranslation,Philadelphia,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,2011,p.129. ^Kruger,Loren(2007)."KeywordsandContexts:TranslatingTheatreTheory".TheatreJournal.59(3):355–58.doi:10.1353/tj.2007.0146.JSTOR 25070054.S2CID 191603013. ^FrankStewart,ThePoemBehindthePoem,Washington,CopperCanyonPress,2004. ^EugeneEoyangandLinYao-fu,TranslatingChineseLiterature,IndianaUniversityPress,1995,pp.42–43. ^Tobler,Stefan;Sabău,Antoaneta(1April2018)."TranslatingConfession,EditorialRES1/2018".ReviewofEcumenicalStudiesSibiu.10(1):5–9.doi:10.2478/ress-2018-0001.S2CID 188019915. ^MJCWarren,"‘Leadusnotintotemptation’:whyPopeFrancisiswrongabouttheLord’sPrayer",TheConversation,8December2017[1] ^A.J.B.Higgins,"'LeadUsNotintoTemptation':SomeLatinVariants",JournalofTheologicalStudies,1943. ^CharlesMcNamara,"LeadUsNotintoTemptation?FrancisIsNottheFirsttoQuestionaKeyPhraseoftheLord'sPrayer",Commonweal,1January2018.[2] ^Farris,Michael(2007),FromTyndaletoMadison,p. 37. ^abFatani,Afnan(2006)."TranslationandtheQur'an".InLeaman,Oliver(ed.).TheQur'an:AnEncyclopaedia.Routledge.pp. 657–669.ISBN 978-0415775298. ^MaliseRuthven,IslamintheWorld,Granta,2006,p.90,ISBN 978-1-86207-906-9. ^abFisher,Abigail(October2020)."Theselipsthatarenot(d)one:Writingwiththe'pash'oftranslation"(PDF).TEXT:JournalofWritingandWritingCourses.24(2):1–25.BraschiandAckeremploycertaintechniquestoproducewritingthateschewsfixedmeaninginfavouroffacilitatingtheemergenceoffluidandinterpermeatingtextualresonances,aswellastoestablishameta-discourseonthewritingandtranslationprocess. ^MorenoFernandez,Francisco(2020).Yo-YoBoing!OrLiteratureasaTranslingualPractice(Poets,Philosophers,Lovers:onthewritingsofGianninaBraschi).Aldama,FrederickLuis;Stavans,Ilan;O'Dwyer,Tess.Pittsburgh,Pa.:UPittsburgh.ISBN 978-0-8229-4618-2.OCLC 1143649021.Thisepilinguisticawarenessisapparentintheconstantlanguagegamesandinthewayinwhichshesooftenplayswiththistranslingualrealityandwithallthefactorswithwhichitcontrastsandamongwhichitmovessoliquidly. ^Stanchich,Maritza.BilingualBigBang:GianninaBraschi'sTrilogyLevelstheSpanish-EnglishPlayingField(Poets,Philosophers,Lovers).Pittsburgh:UPittsburgh.pp. 63–75.Carriónnotes,theideaofanonlytonguerulingoveraconsiderablenumberofdifferentnationsandpeoplesisfundamentallyquestioned. ^Carrión,MaríaM.(1January1996)."Geography,(M)OtherTonguesandtheRoleofTranslationinGianninaBraschi'sElimperiodelossueños".Studiesin20th&21stCenturyLiterature.20(1).doi:10.4148/2334-4415.1385.ISSN 2334-4415. ^Jr,IstvanCsicsery-Ronay(2008).TheSevenBeautiesofScienceFiction.WesleyanUniversityPress.pp. 13–46.ISBN 9780819568892. ^Transfiction :ResearchintotheRealitiesofTranslationFiction.Kaindl,Klaus.,Spitzel,Karlheinz.Amsterdam:JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany.2014.pp. 345–362.ISBN 9789027270733.OCLC 868285393.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:others(link) ^Mossop,Brian(1April1996)."TheImageofTranslationinScienceFiction&Astronomy".TheTranslator.2(1):1–26.doi:10.1080/13556509.1996.10798961.ISSN 1355-6509. ^abIannuzzi,Giulia(2November2018)."Sciencefiction,culturalindustrializationandthetranslationoftechno-scienceinpost-WorldWarIIItaly".Perspectives.26(6):885–900.doi:10.1080/0907676X.2018.1496461.hdl:11368/2930475.ISSN 0907-676X.S2CID 69992861. ^Iannuzzi,Giulia(2017)."Traduttore,consulenteeditoriale,intellettuale:RiccardoVallaelafantascienzaangloamericanainItalia".RivistaInternazionalediTecnicadellaTraduzione :InternationalJournalofTranslation(inItalian).ISSN 1722-5906. ^Iannuzzi,Giulia(2019).Unlaboratoriodifantasticilibri.RiccardoVallaintellettuale,editore,traduttore.Conun'appendicedilettereinediteacuradiLucaG.Manenti.Chieti(Italy).ISBN 9788833051031. ^Milton,John(2000),"TheTranslationofMassFiction",inBeeby,Allison;Ensinger,Doris;Presas,Marisa(eds.),InvestigatingTranslation,BenjaminsTranslationLibrary,vol. 32,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany,pp. 171–179,doi:10.1075/btl.32.21mil,ISBN 9789027216373,retrieved6April2019 ^Gouanvic,Jean-Marc(1November1997)."TranslationandtheShapeofThingstoCome".TheTranslator.3(2):125–152.doi:10.1080/13556509.1997.10798995.ISSN 1355-6509. ^Sohár,Anikó(1999).TheCulturalTransferofScienceFictionandFantasyinHungary1989-1995.PeterLang.ISBN 9780820443485. ^Sohár,Anikó(August2000)."Thespeechbewrayeththee:thoushaltnotstealtheprestigeofforeginliteraturesPseudotranslationsinHungaryafter1989"(PDF).HungarianStudies.14(1):56–82.doi:10.1556/HStud.14.2000.1.3.ISSN 0236-6568. ^abIannuzzi,Giulia(2015)."TheTranslationofEastAsianScienceFictioninItaly:AnEssayonChineseandJapaneseScienceFiction,AnthologicalPracticesandPublishingStrategiesbeyondtheAnglo-AmericanCanon".QuadernidiCultura.12:85–108.doi:10.5281/zenodo.3604992. ^Byrne,Jody(2006).TechnicalTranslation:UsabilityStrategiesforTranslatingTechnicalDocumentation.Dordrecht:Springer. Bibliography[edit] Armstrong,Rebecca,"AllKindsofUnlucky"(reviewofTheAeneid,translatedbyShadiBartsch,Profile,November2020,ISBN 9781788162678,400pp.),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.43,no.5(4March2021),pp. 35–36. Baker,Mona;Saldanha,Gabriela(2008).RoutledgeEncyclopediaofTranslationStudies.NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 9780415369305. Balcerzan,Edward,ed.(1977).Pisarzepolscyosztuceprzekładu,1440-1974:Antologia[PolishWritersontheArtofTranslation,1440-1974:anAnthology](inPolish).Poznań:WydawnictwoPoznańskie.OCLC 4365103. Bassnett,Susan(1990).Translationstudies.London&NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 9780415065283. Berman,Antoine(1984).L'épreuvedel'étranger:cultureettraductiondansl'Allemagneromantique:Herder,Goethe,Schlegel,Novalis,Humboldt,Schleiermacher,Hölderlin(inFrench).Paris:Gallimard,Essais.ISBN 9782070700769.ExcerptedinEnglishinVenuti,Lawrence(2004)[2002].Thetranslationstudiesreader(2nd ed.).NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 9780415319201. Berman,Antoine(1995).Pourunecritiquedestraductions:JohnDonne(inFrench).Paris:Gallimard.ISBN 9782070733354.Englishtranslation:Berman,Antoine(author);Massardier-Kenney,Françoise(translator)(2009).Towardatranslationcriticism:JohnDonne.Ohio:KentStateUniversityPress.ISBN 9781606350096.{{citebook}}:|first1=hasgenericname(help) Billiani,Francesca(2001),"Ethics",inBaker,Mona(ed.),RoutledgeEncyclopediaofTranslationStudies,NewYork:Routledge,ISBN 9780415255172. Bromwich,David,"InPraiseofAmbiguity"(areviewofMichaelWood,OnEmpson,PrincetonUniversityPress,2017),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks),vol.LXIV,no.16(26October2017),pp. 50–52. Cohen,J.M.,"Translation",EncyclopediaAmericana,1986,vol.27,p. 14. Darwish,Ali(1999)."Towardsatheoryofconstraintsintranslation".{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help)[self-publishedsource?]Workinprogressversion(pdf). Dryden,John."PrefacetoSylvae".Bartelby.com.Retrieved27April2015. Fatani,Afnan,"TranslationandtheQur'an",inOliverLeaman,TheQur'an:AnEncyclopaedia,Routledge,2006,pp. 657–69. Galassi,Jonathan(June2000)."FEATURE:Comoconversazione:ontranslation".TheParisReview.42(155):255–312.PoetsandcriticsSeamusHeaney,CharlesTomlinson,TimParks,andothersdiscussthetheoryandpracticeoftranslation. Godayol,Pilar(February2013)."Metaphors,womenandtranslation:fromlesbellesinfidèlestolafrontera".GenderandLanguage.7(1):97–116.doi:10.1558/genl.v7i1.97. Gouadec,Daniel(2007).Translationasaprofession.Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins.ISBN 9789027216816. Greenblatt,Stephen,"CanWeEverMasterKingLear?",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.3(23February2017),pp. 34–36. Hays,Gregory,"FoundinTranslation"(reviewofDenisFeeney,BeyondGreek:TheBeginningsofLatinLiterature,HarvardUniversityPress),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.11(22June2017),pp. 56,58. Kaiser,Walter,"AHeroofTranslation"(areviewofJeanFindlay,ChasingLostTime:TheLifeofC.K.ScottMoncrieff:Soldier,Spy,andTranslator,Farrar,StrausandGiroux,351pp.,$30.00),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXII,no.10(4June2015),pp. 54–56. Kasparek,Christopher(1983)."Thetranslator'sendlesstoil(bookreviews)".ThePolishReview.XXVIII(2):83–87.JSTOR 25777966.IncludesadiscussionofEuropean-languagecognatesoftheterm,"translation". Kasparek,Christopher,translator'sforewordtoBolesławPrus,Pharaoh,translatedfromthePolish,withforewordandnotes,byChristopherKasparek,AmazonKindlee-book,2020,ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV. Kelly,Louis(1979).Thetrueinterpreter:AhistoryoftranslationtheoryandpracticeintheWest.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 9780631196402. Link,Perry,"AMagicianofChinesePoetry"(reviewofEliotWeinberger,withanafterwordbyOctavioPaz,19WaysofLookingatWangWei(withMoreWays),NewDirections,88pp.,$10.95[paper];andEliotWeinberger,TheGhostsofBirds,NewDirections,211pp.,$16.95[paper]),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIII,no.18(24November2016),pp. 49–50. Marcus,Gary,"AmIHuman?:Researchersneednewwaystodistinguishartificialintelligencefromthenaturalkind",ScientificAmerican,vol.316,no.3(March2017),pp. 58–63.Multipletestsofartificial-intelligenceefficacyareneededbecause,"justasthereisnosingletestofathleticprowess,therecannotbeoneultimatetestofintelligence."Onesuchtest,a"ConstructionChallenge",wouldtestperceptionandphysicalaction—"twoimportantelementsofintelligentbehaviorthatwereentirelyabsentfromtheoriginalTuringtest."Anotherproposalhasbeentogivemachinesthesamestandardizedtestsofscienceandotherdisciplinesthatschoolchildrentake.Asofarinsuperablestumblingblocktoartificialintelligenceisanincapacityforreliabledisambiguation."[V]irtuallyeverysentence[thatpeoplegenerate]isambiguous,ofteninmultipleways."Aprominentexampleisknownasthe"pronoundisambiguationproblem":amachinehasnowayofdeterminingtowhomorwhatapronouninasentence—suchas"he","she"or"it"—refers. Miłosz,Czesław(1983).ThehistoryofPolishliterature(2nd ed.).Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN 9780520044777. AngeMlinko,"WholeEarthTroubador"(reviewofTheEssentialW.S.Merlin,editedbyMichaelWiegers,CopperCanyon,338pp.,2017),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.19(7December2017),pp. 45–46. Muhlstein,Anka,"PaintersandWriters:WhenSomethingNewHappens",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.1(19January2017),pp. 33–35. Munday,Jeremy(2016).IntroducingTranslationStudies:theoriesandapplications(4thed.).London/NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 978-1138912557. Najder,Zdzisław(author);Najder,Halina(translator)(2007).JosephConrad:alife.Rochester,NewYork:CamdenHouse.ISBN 9781571133472.{{citebook}}:|first1=hasgenericname(help) North,Anna(20November2017)."Historically,mentranslatedtheOdyssey.Here'swhathappenedwhenawomantookthejob".Vox.Retrieved9September2020. Parks,Tim(2007).Translatingstyle:aliteraryapproachtotranslation-atranslationapproachtoliterature.NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 9781905763047. Pei,Mario(1984).Thestoryoflanguage.NewYork:NewAmericanLibrary.ISBN 9780452008700.IntroductionbyStuartBergFlexner,revisededition. Piron,Claude(1994).Ledéfideslangues:dugâchisaubonsens[Thelanguagechallenge:fromchaostocommonsense](inFrench).Paris:L'Harmattan.ISBN 9782738424327. Polizzotti,Mark,SympathyfortheTraitor:ATranslationManifesto,MIT,168pp.,2018,ISBN 9780262037990. Rose,MarilynGaddis(guesteditor)(January1980).Translation:agentofcommunication:aninternationalreviewofartsandideas(volume5,issue1,specialissue).Hamilton,NewZealand:OutriggerPublishers.OCLC 224073589.{{citebook}}:|first=hasgenericname(help) Ruthven,Malise,"TheIslamicRoadtotheModernWorld"(reviewofChristopherdeBellaigue,TheIslamicEnlightenment:TheStrugglebetweenFaithandReason,1798toModernTimes,Liveright;andWaelAbu-'Uksa,FreedomintheArabWorld:ConceptsandIdeologiesinArabicThoughtintheNineteenthCentury,CambridgeUniversityPress),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIV,no.11(22June2017),pp. 22,24–25. Schleiermacher,Friedrich(author);Bernofsky,Susan(translator)(2004)[2002],"Onthedifferentmethodsoftranslating(ÜberdieverschiedenenMethodendesÜbersetzens1813)",inVenuti,Lawrence(ed.),Thetranslationstudiesreader(2nd ed.),NewYork:Routledge,pp. 43–63,ISBN 9780415319201.{{citation}}:|first1=hasgenericname(help) Simms,NormanT.(guesteditor)(1983).Nimrod'ssin:treasonandtranslationinamultilingualworld(volume8,issue2).Hamilton,NewZealand:OutriggerPublishers.OCLC 9719326.{{citebook}}:|first=hasgenericname(help) Snell-Hornby,Mary;Schopp,JürgenF.(2013)."Translation",EuropeanHistoryOnline,Mainz,InstituteofEuropeanHistory,retrieved29August2013. Tatarkiewicz,Władysław(author);Kasparek,Christopher(Polish-to-Englishtranslator)(1980).Ahistoryofsixideas:anessayinaesthetics.TheHague,Boston,London:MartinusNijhoff.ISBN 978-8301008246.{{citebook}}:|first1=hasgenericname(help) Tatarkiewicz,Władysław,Odoskonałości(OnPerfection),Warsaw,PaństwoweWydawnictwoNaukowe,1976;EnglishtranslationbyChristopherKaspareksubsequentlyserializedinDialecticsandHumanism:ThePolishPhilosophicalQuarterly,vol.VI,no.4(autumn1979)—vol.VIII,no2(spring1981),andreprintedinWładysławTatarkiewicz,OnPerfection,WarsawUniversityPress,CenterofUniversalism,1992,pp. 9–51(thebookisacollectionofpapersbyandaboutProfessorTatarkiewicz). Taylor,Paul,"InsanelyComplicated,HopelesslyInadequate"(reviewofBrianCantwellSmith,ThePromiseofArtificialIntelligence:ReckoningandJudgment,MIT,October2019,ISBN 9780262043045,157pp.;GaryMarcusandErnestDavis,RebootingAI:BuildingArtificialIntelligenceWeCanTrust,Ballantine,September2019,ISBN 9781524748258,304pp.;JudeaPearlandDanaMackenzie,TheBookofWhy:TheNewScienceofCauseandEffect,Penguin,May2019,ISBN 9780141982410,418pp.),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.43,no.2(21January2021),pp. 37–39. Tobler,Stefan;Sabău,Antoaneta(2018).TranslatingConfession,ReviewofEcumenicalStudies,ISSN:2359-8093. Vélez,Fabio(2016).AntesdeBabel.Unahistoriaretóricadelatraducción.Granada,Spain:Comares.ISBN 978-8490454718. Venuti,Lawrence(1994).Thetranslator'sinvisibility.NewYork:Routledge.ISBN 9780415115384. Warner,Marina,"ThePoliticsofTranslation"(areviewofKateBriggs,ThisLittleArt,2017;MireilleGansel,TranslationasTranshumance,translatedbyRosSchwartz,2017;MarkPolizzotti,SympathyfortheTraitor:ATranslationManifesto,2018;BoydTonkin,ed.,The100BestNovelsinTranslation,2018;CliveScott,TheWorkofLiteraryTranslation,2018),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.40,no.19(11October2018),pp. 21–24. Wilson,Emily,"ADoggishTranslation"(reviewofThePoemsofHesiod:Theogony,WorksandDays,andTheShieldofHerakles,translatedfromtheGreekbyBarryB.Powell,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2017,184pp.),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXV,no.1(18January2018),pp. 34–36. Wilson,Emily,"Ah,howmiserable!"(reviewofthreeseparatetranslationsofTheOresteiabyAeschylus:byOliverTaplin,Liveright,November2018;byJeffreyScottBernstein,Carcanet,April2020;andbyDavidMulroy,Wisconsin,April2018),LondonReviewofBooks,vol.42,no.19(8October2020),pp. 9–12,14. Wilson,Emily,"ThePleasuresofTranslation"(reviewofMarkPolizzotti,SympathyfortheTraitor:ATranslationManifesto,MITPress,2018,182pp.),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXV,no.9(24May2018),pp. 46–47. Zethsen,KarenKorning;Askehave,Inger(February2013)."Talkingtranslation:Isgenderanissue?".GenderandLanguage.7(1):117–134.doi:10.1558/genl.v7i1.117. Furtherreading[edit] Abu-Mahfouz,Ahmad(2008)."TranslationasaBlendingofCultures"(PDF).JournalofTranslation.4(1):1–5.doi:10.54395/jot-x8fne.S2CID 62020741.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on9March2012. Davis,Lydia,"ElevenPleasuresofTranslating",TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXIII,no.19(8December2016),pp. 22–24."Iliketoreproducethewordorder,andtheorderofideas,oftheoriginal[text]wheneverpossible.[p.22][T]ranslationis,eternally,acompromise.Yousettleforthebestyoucandoratherthanachievingperfection,thoughthereistheoccasionalperfectsolution[totheproblemoffindinganequivalentexpressioninthetargetlanguage]."(p. 23.) Flesch,Rudolf,TheArtofClearThinking,chapter5:"Danger!LanguageatWork"(pp. 35–42),chapter6:"ThePursuitofTranslation"(pp. 43–50),Barnes&NobleBooks,1973. Kelly,Nataly;Zetzsche,Jost(2012).FoundinTranslation:HowLanguageShapesOurLivesandTransformstheWorld.TarcherPerigee.ISBN 978-0399537974. Nabokov,Vladimir(4August1941)."TheArtofTranslation".TheNewRepublic.Retrieved19January2020. RossAmos,Flora,"EarlyTheoriesofTranslation",ColumbiaUniversityStudiesinEnglishandComparativeLiterature,1920.AtProjectGutenberg. Sharma,Sandeep(2017)."TranslationandTranslationStudies".There'saDoubleTongue.HPUniversity:1. Wechsler,Robert,PerformingWithoutaStage:TheArtofLiteraryTranslation,CatbirdPress,1998. Wills,Garry,"AWildandIndecentBook"(reviewofDavidBentleyHart,TheNewTestament:ATranslation,YaleUniversityPress,577pp.),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXV,no.2(8February2018),pp. 34–35.DiscussessomepitfallsininterpretingandtranslatingtheNewTestament Externallinks[edit] TranslationatWikipedia'ssisterprojectsDefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsQuotationsfromWikiquoteDatafromWikidata vteTranslationTypes Legal Literary Bible Quran Kural Linguisticvalidation Medical Regulatory Technical Interpretation Cultural Word-for-word Sense-for-sense Homophonic Theory Translationstudies Skopostheory Translationproject Translationcriticism Dynamicandformalequivalence Contrastivelinguistics Technologies CAT Machinetranslation Mobiletranslation Translationmanagementsystem Dubbing Subtitling Pre-editing Postediting Multimediatranslation Localization Glocalization Internationalizationandlocalization Languagelocalization Videogamelocalization Dublocalization Websitelocalization Softwarelocalization 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