Design
QRcode
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Typeofmatrixbarcode
QRcodefortheURLoftheEnglishWikipediaMobilemainpage.
AQRcode(aninitialismforQuickResponsecode)isatypeofmatrixbarcode(ortwo-dimensionalbarcode)[1]inventedin1994bytheJapaneseautomotivecompanyDensoWave.[2][3]Abarcodeisamachine-readableopticallabelthatcontainsinformationabouttheitemtowhichitisattached.Inpractice,QRcodesoftencontaindataforalocator,identifier,ortrackerthatpointstoawebsiteorapplication.AQRcodeusesfourstandardizedencodingmodes(numeric,alphanumeric,byte/binary,andkanji)tostoredataefficiently;extensionsmayalsobeused.[4]
TheQuickResponsesystembecamepopularoutsidetheautomotiveindustryduetoitsfastreadabilityandgreaterstoragecapacitycomparedtostandardUPCbarcodes.Applicationsincludeproducttracking,itemidentification,timetracking,documentmanagement,andgeneralmarketing.[5]
AQRcodeconsistsofblacksquaresarrangedinasquaregridonawhitebackground,whichcanbereadbyanimagingdevicesuchasacamera,andprocessedusingReed–Solomonerrorcorrectionuntiltheimagecanbeappropriatelyinterpreted.Therequireddataisthenextractedfrompatternsthatarepresentinbothhorizontalandverticalcomponentsoftheimage.[5]
Contents
1History
2Adoption
3Standards
4Uses
4.1Augmentedreality
4.2Displayingmultimediacontents
4.3Mobileoperatingsystems
4.4Virtualstores
4.5QRcodepayment
4.6Websitelogin
4.7Restaurantordering
4.8JoiningaWi‑Finetwork
4.9Funeraryuse
4.10Electronicauthentication
4.11Videogames
4.12Loyaltyprograms
4.13Counterfeitdetection
4.14Producttracing
4.15COVID-19pandemic
5Design
5.1Storage
5.2Errorcorrection
5.3Encoding
5.4Decodingexample
6Variants
6.1Model1
6.2MicroQRcode
6.3IQRcode
6.4SecureQRcode
6.5FrameQR
6.6HCC2D
6.7JABcode
7License
8Risks
9Seealso
10References
11Bibliography
12Externallinks
History[edit]
Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(October2021)
TheQRcodesystemwasinventedin1994byMasahiroHarafromtheJapanesecompanyDensoWave.[6]TheinitialdesignwasinfluencedbytheblackandwhitepiecesonaGoboard.[7]Itspurposewastotrackvehiclesduringmanufacturing;itwasdesignedtoallowhigh-speedcomponentscanning.[8]
Adoption[edit]
QRcodesarenowusedinamuchbroadercontext,includingbothcommercialtrackingapplicationsandconvenience-orientedapplicationsaimedatmobile-phoneusers(termedmobiletagging).QRcodesmaybeusedtodisplaytexttotheuser,toopenawebpageontheuser'sdevice,toaddavCardcontacttotheuser'sdevice,toopenaUniformResourceIdentifier(URI),toconnecttoawirelessnetwork,ortocomposeanemailortextmessage.ThereareagreatmanyQRcodegeneratorsavailableassoftwareorasonlinetoolsthatareeitherfree,orrequireapaidsubscription.[9]TheQRcodehasbecomeoneofthemost-usedtypesoftwo-dimensionalcode.[10]
DuringthemonthofJune2011,14millionAmericanmobileusersscannedaQRcodeorabarcode.Some58%ofthoseusersscannedaQRorbarcodefromtheirhomes,while39%scannedfromretailstores;53%ofthe14millionusersweremenbetweentheagesof18and34.[11]
ASeptember2020surveyfoundthat18.8percentofconsumersintheUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdomstronglyagreedthattheyhadnoticedanincreaseofQRcodeusesincethebeginofCOVID-19relatedshelter-in-placeordersinMarch2020.[12]
Standards[edit]
StructureofaQRcode(version7),highlightingfunctionalelements.
ThereareseveralstandardsthatcovertheencodingofdataasQRcodes:[13]
October1997 –AIM(AssociationforAutomaticIdentificationandMobility)International[14]
January1999 –JISX0510
June2000 –ISO/IEC18004:2000Informationtechnology –Automaticidentificationanddatacapturetechniques –Barcodesymbology –QRcode(nowwithdrawn)DefinesQRcodemodels1and2symbols.
1September2006 –ISO/IEC18004:2006Informationtechnology –Automaticidentificationanddatacapturetechniques –QRcode2005barcodesymbologyspecification(nowwithdrawn)[15]DefinesQRcode2005symbols,anextensionofQRcodemodel2.DoesnotspecifyhowtoreadQRcodemodel1symbols,orrequirethisforcompliance.
1February2015 –ISO/IEC18004:2015Information –Automaticidentificationanddatacapturetechniques –QRCodebarcodesymbologyspecificationRenamestheQRCode2005symboltoQRCodeandaddsclarificationtosomeproceduresandminorcorrections.
Attheapplicationlayer,thereissomevariationbetweenmostoftheimplementations.Japan'sNTTDoCoMohasestablisheddefactostandardsfortheencodingofURLs,contactinformation,andseveralotherdatatypes.[16]Theopen-source"ZXing"projectmaintainsalistofQRcodedatatypes.[17]
Uses[edit]
AQRcodeusedonalargebillboardinJapan,linkingtothesagasou.mobiwebsite.
QRcodeshavebecomecommoninconsumeradvertising.Typically,asmartphoneisusedasaQRcodescanner,displayingthecodeandconvertingittosomeusefulform(suchasastandardURLforawebsite,therebyobviatingtheneedforausertotypeitintoawebbrowser).
QRcodehasbecomeafocusofadvertisingstrategy,sinceitprovidesawaytoaccessabrand'swebsitemorequicklythanbymanuallyenteringaURL.[18][19]Beyondmereconveniencetotheconsumer,theimportanceofthiscapabilityisthatitincreasestheconversionrate:thechancethatcontactwiththeadvertisementwillconverttoasale.Itcoaxesinterestedprospectsfurtherdowntheconversionfunnelwithlittledelayoreffort,bringingtheviewertotheadvertiser'swebsiteimmediately,whereasalongerandmoretargetedsalespitchmaylosetheviewer'sinterest.
Althoughinitiallyusedtotrackpartsinvehiclemanufacturing,QRcodesareusedoveramuchwiderrangeofapplications.Theseincludecommercialtracking,entertainmentandtransportticketing,productandloyaltymarketingandin-storeproductlabeling.Examplesofmarketingincludewhereacompany'sdiscountedandpercentdiscountcanbecapturedusingaQRcodedecoderwhichisamobileapp,orstoringacompany'sinformationsuchasaddressandrelatedinformationalongsideitsalpha-numerictextdataascanbeseeninYellowPagesdirectories.
Theycanalsobeusedinstoringpersonalinformationforusebyorganizations.AnexampleofthisisPhilippinesNationalBureauofInvestigation(NBI)whereNBIclearancesnowcomewithaQRcode.Manyoftheseapplicationstargetmobile-phoneusers(viamobiletagging).Usersmayreceivetext,addavCardcontacttotheirdevice,openaURL,orcomposeane-mailortextmessageafterscanningQRcodes.TheycangenerateandprinttheirownQRcodesforotherstoscanandusebyvisitingoneofseveralpayorfreeQRcode-generatingsitesorapps.GooglehadanAPI,nowdeprecated,togenerateQRcodes,[20]andappsforscanningQRcodescanbefoundonnearlyallsmartphonedevices.[21]
QRcodeshavebeenusedandprintedontrainticketsinChinasince2010.[22]
QRcodesstoringaddressesandURLsmayappearinmagazines,onsigns,onbuses,onbusinesscards,oronalmostanyobjectaboutwhichusersmightwantinformation.UserswithacameraphoneequippedwiththecorrectreaderapplicationcanscantheimageoftheQRcodetodisplaytext,contactinformation,connecttoawirelessnetwork,oropenawebpageinthephone'sbrowser.Thisactoflinkingfromphysicalworldobjectsistermedhardlinkingorobjecthyperlinking.QRcodesalsomaybelinkedtoalocationtotrackwhereacodehasbeenscanned.EithertheapplicationthatscanstheQRcoderetrievesthegeoinformationbyusingGPSandcelltowertriangulation(aGPS)ortheURLencodedintheQRcodeitselfisassociatedwithalocation.In2008,aJapanesestonemasonannouncedplanstoengraveQRcodesongravestones,allowingvisitorstoviewinformationaboutthedeceased,andfamilymemberstokeeptrackofvisits.[23]PsychologistRichardWisemanwasoneofthefirstauthorstoincludeQRcodesinabook,inParanormality:WhyWeSeeWhatIsn'tThere(2011).[24][failedverification]
QRcodeshavebeenincorporatedintocurrency.InJune2011,TheRoyalDutchMint(KoninklijkeNederlandseMunt)issuedtheworld'sfirstofficialcoinwithaQRcodetocelebratethecentenaryofitscurrentbuildingandpremises.Thecoincanbescannedbyasmartphoneandoriginallylinkedtoaspecialwebsitewithcontentsaboutthehistoricaleventanddesignofthecoin.[25]In2014,theCentralBankofNigeriaissueda100-nairabanknotetocommemorateitscentennial,thefirstbanknotetoincorporateaQRcodeinitsdesign.Whenscannedwithaninternet-enabledmobiledevice,thecodegoestoawebsitewhichtellsthecentenarystoryofNigeria.[26]In2015,theCentralBankoftheRussianFederationissueda100-rublesnotetocommemoratetheannexationofCrimeabytheRussianFederation.ItcontainsaQRcodeintoitsdesign,andwhenscannedwithaninternet-enabledmobiledevice,thecodegoestoawebsitethatdetailsthehistoricalandtechnicalbackgroundofthecommemorativenote.In2017,theBankofGhanaissueda5-cedisbanknotetocommemorate60yearsofCentralBankinginGhana,andcontainsaQRcodeinitsdesign,whichwhenscannedwithaninternet-enabledmobiledevice,thatcodegoestotheofficialBankofGhanawebsite.
Creditcardfunctionalityisunderdevelopment.InSeptember2016,theReserveBankofIndia(RBI)launchedtheeponymouslynamedBharatQR,acommonQRcodejointlydevelopedbyallthefourmajorcardpaymentcompanies-NationalPaymentsCorporationofIndiathatrunsRuPaycardsalongwithMasterCard,VisaandAmericanExpress.Itwillalsohavethecapabilityofacceptingpaymentsontheunifiedpaymentsinterface(UPI)platform.[27][28]
Augmentedreality[edit]
QRcodesareusedinsomeaugmentedrealitysystemstodeterminethepositionsofobjectsin3-dimensionalspace.[8]
Displayingmultimediacontents[edit]
MultimediaQRcodesarealsousedtodirectuserstospecificmultimediacontents(suchasvideo,audio,images,documents,etc.).
Mobileoperatingsystems[edit]
QRcodescanbeusedonvariousmobiledeviceoperatingsystems.iPhonesrunningoniOS11andhigher[29]andsomeAndroiddevicescannativelyscanQRcodeswithoutdownloadinganexternalapp.[30]ThecameraappisabletoscananddisplaythekindofQRcode(onlyoniPhone)alongwiththelink(bothonAndroidandiPhone).ThesedevicessupportURLredirection,whichallowsQRcodestosendmetadatatoexistingapplicationsonthedevice.Manypaidorfreeappsareavailablewiththeabilitytoscanthecodesandhard-linktoanexternalURL.
Virtualstores[edit]
QRcodeshavebeenusedtoestablish"virtualstores",whereagalleryofproductinformationandQRcodesispresentedtothecustomer,e.g.onatrainstationwall.ThecustomersscantheQRcodes,andtheproductsaredeliveredtotheirhomes.ThisusestartedinSouthKorea,[31]andArgentina,[32]butiscurrentlyexpandingglobally.[33]Walmart,Procter&GambleandWoolworthshavealreadyadoptedtheVirtualStoreconcept.[34]
QRcodepayment[edit]
Mainarticle:QRcodepayment
QRcodescanbeusedtostorebankaccountinformationorcreditcardinformation,ortheycanbespecificallydesignedtoworkwithparticularpaymentproviderapplications.ThereareseveraltrialapplicationsofQRcodepaymentsacrosstheworld.[35][36]IndevelopingcountrieslikeChina,[37][38]India[39]andBangladeshQRcodepaymentisaverypopularandconvenientmethodofmakingpayments.SinceAlipaydesignedaQRcodepaymentmethodin2011,[40]mobilepaymenthasbeenquicklyadoptedinChina.Asof2018,around83%ofallpaymentsweremadeviamobilepayment.[41]
InNovember2012,QRcodepaymentsweredeployedonalargerscaleintheCzechRepublicwhenanopenformatforpaymentinformationexchange — aShortPaymentDescriptor — wasintroducedandendorsedbytheCzechBankingAssociationastheofficiallocalsolutionforQRpayments.[42][43]In2013,theEuropeanPaymentCouncilprovidedguidelinesfortheEPCQRcodeenablingSCTinitiationwithintheEurozone.
Websitelogin[edit]
QRcodescanbeusedtologintowebsites:aQRcodeisshownontheloginpageonacomputerscreen,andwhenaregistereduserscansitwithaverifiedsmartphone,theywillautomaticallybeloggedin.Authenticationisperformedbythesmartphonewhichcontactstheserver.GoogletestedsuchaloginmethodinJanuary2012.[44]
Restaurantordering[edit]
FastserverestaurantscanpresentaQRcodenearthefrontdoorallowinggueststoviewanonlinemenu,orevenredirectthemtoanonlineorderingwebsiteorapp,allowingthemtoorderorpotentiallypayfortheirmealwithouthavingtostandinlineoruseacashier.QRcodescanalsolinktodailyorweeklyspecialsthatarenotprintedonthestandardizedmenus.[45]Attableserverestaurants,QRcodesenablegueststoordertheirmealswithoutawaiterinvolved—theQRcodecontainsthetablenumbersoserversknowwheretobringthefood.[46][47]Thisapplicationhasgrownespeciallysincetheneedforsocialdistancingduringthe2020COVID-19pandemichaspromptedreducedcontactbetweenservicestaffandcustomers.[46]
JoiningaWi‑Finetwork[edit]
AQRcodetoautomaticallyjoinaWi‑Finetwork.
ByspecifyingtheSSID,encryptiontype,password/passphrase,andiftheSSIDishiddenornot,mobiledeviceuserscanquicklyscanandjoinnetworkswithouthavingtomanuallyenterthedata.[48]AMECARD-likeformatissupportedbyAndroidandiOS11+.[49]
Commonformat:WIFI:S:;T:;P:;H:;
Sample:WIFI:S:MySSID;T:WPA;P:MyPassW0rd;;
Funeraryuse[edit]
AQRcodewhichlinkstoanobituaryandcanbeplacedonaheadstone.
AQRcodecanlinktoanobituaryandcanbeplacedonaheadstone.In2008,IshinokoeinYamanashiPrefecture,JapanbegantoselltombstoneswithQRcodesproducedbyITDeSign,wherethecodeleadstoavirtualgravesiteofthedeceased.[50][51][52]Othercompanies,suchasWisconsin-basedInteractiveHeadstones,havealsobegunimplementingQRcodesintotombstones.[53]In2014,theJewishCemeteryofLaPazinUruguaybeganimplementingQRcodesfortombstones.[54]
Electronicauthentication[edit]
QRcodesarealsousedtogeneratetime-basedone-timepasswords(TOTP)forelectronicauthentication.
Videogames[edit]
Popularvideogames,suchasFez,TheTalosPrinciple,andWatchDogs,haveincorporatedQRcodesasstoryandgameplayelements.[55][56]AmongUshasaQRcodeeasteregginthe"Scanboardingpass"taskintheMIRAHQmap.MobilegamessuchasMunzeeusegeolocationincombinationwithQRcodestocreateagamethatisplayedintherealworldbyscanningQRstickersinphysicallocations.[57]
Loyaltyprograms[edit]
QRcodeshavebeenusedbyvariousretailoutletsthathaveloyaltyprograms.SometimestheseprogramsareaccessedwithanappthatisloadedontoaphoneandincludesaprocesstriggeredbyaQRcodescan.TheQRcodesforloyaltyprogramstendtobefoundprintedonthereceiptforapurchaseorontheproductsthemselves.Usersintheseschemescollectawardpointsbyscanningacode.
Counterfeitdetection[edit]
SerialisedQRcodeshavebeenusedbybrands[58]andgovernments[59]toletconsumers,retailersanddistributorsverifytheauthenticityoftheproductsandhelpwithdetectingcounterfeitproducts,aspartofabrandprotectionprogram.[60]However,thesecuritylevelofaregularQRCodeislimitedsinceQRCodesprintedonoriginalproductsareeasilyreproducedonfakeproducts,eventhoughtheanalysisofdatageneratedasaresultofQRCodescanningcanbeusedtodetectcounterfeitingandillicitactivity.[61]AhighersecuritylevelcanbeattainedbyembeddingadigitalwatermarkorcopydetectionpatternintotheimageoftheQRCode.ThismakestheQRCodemoresecureagainstcounterfeitingattempts,andfakeproductswhichcontainacounterfeitQRCodecanbedetectedbyscanningthesecureQRCodewithaspecificapp(eventhoughtheQRCodemessageitselfisvalid).[62]
Producttracing[edit]
Furtherinformation:Producetraceability
DifferentstudieshavebeenmadetoassesstheeffectivenessofQRcodesasameansofconveyinglabellinginformationandtheiruseaspartofafoodtraceabilitysystem.In,[63]itwasfoundthatwhenprovidedfreeaccesstoasmartphonewithQRCodescanningapp,52.6%ofparticipantswoulduseittoaccesslabellinginformation.AstudymadeinSouthKoreashowedthatconsumersappreciateQRcodeusedinfoodtraceabilitysystem,astheyprovidedetailedinformationaboutfood,aswellasinformationthathelpsthemintheirpurchasingdecision.[64]IfQRCodesareserialised,consumerscanaccessawebpageshowingthesupplychainforeachingredient,aswellasinformationspecifictoeachrelatedbatch,includingmeatprocessorsandmanufacturers,whichhelpsaddresstheconcernstheyhaveabouttheoriginoftheirfood.[65]
COVID-19pandemic[edit]
AftertheCOVID-19pandemicbeganspreading,QRcodesbegantobeusedasa"touchless"systemtodisplayinformation,showmenus,orprovideupdatedconsumerinformation,especiallyinthehospitalityindustry.RestaurantsreplacedpaperorlaminatedplasticmenuswithQRcodedecalsonthetable,whichopenedanonlineversionofthemenu.Thispreventedtheneedtodisposeofsingle-usepapermenus,orinstitutecleaningandsanitizingproceduresforpermanentmenusaftereachuse.[66]Localtelevisionstationshavealsobeguntoutilizecodesonlocalnewscaststoallowviewersquickeraccesstostoriesorinformationinvolvingthepandemic,includingtestingandimmunizationschedulingwebsites,orforlinkswithinstoriesmentionedinthenewscastsoverall.
InseveralAustralianstates,patronsarerequiredtoscanQRcodesatshops,clubs,supermarketsandotherserviceandretailestablishmentsonentrytoassistcontacttracing.Singapore,Taiwan,theUnitedKingdomandNewZealandusesimilarsystems.[67]
TheEuropeanUnionoffersaEUDigitalCOVIDCertificate(EUDCC),aQRCodewhichcontainsadigitally-signedproofofvaccination,proofofarecentrecovery,orarecentnegativetest..
Design[edit]
Unliketheolder,one-dimensionalbarcodesthatweredesignedtobemechanicallyscannedbyanarrowbeamoflight,aQRcodeisdetectedbya2-dimensionaldigitalimagesensorandthendigitallyanalyzedbyaprogrammedprocessor.TheprocessorlocatesthethreedistinctivesquaresatthecornersoftheQRcodeimage,usingasmallersquare(ormultiplesquares)nearthefourthcornertonormalizetheimageforsize,orientation,andangleofviewing.ThesmalldotsthroughouttheQRcodearethenconvertedtobinarynumbersandvalidatedwithanerror-correctingalgorithm.
Storage[edit]
TheamountofdatathatcanbestoredintheQRcodesymboldependsonthedatatype(mode,orinputcharacterset),version(1,...,40,indicatingtheoveralldimensionsofthesymbol,i.e.4×versionnumber+17dotsoneachside),anderrorcorrectionlevel.Themaximumstoragecapacitiesoccurforversion40anderrorcorrectionlevelL(low),denotedby40-L:[10][68]
Maximumcharacterstoragecapacity(40-L)characterreferstoindividualvaluesoftheinputmode/datatype
Inputmode
Max.characters
Bits/char.
Possiblecharacters,defaultencoding
Numericonly
7,089
31⁄3
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Alphanumeric
4,296
51⁄2
0–9,A–Z(upper-caseonly),space,$, %,*,+,-,.,/, :
Binary/byte
2,953
8
ISO8859-1
Kanji/kana
1,817
13
ShiftJISX0208
HerearesomesampleQRcodesymbols:
Version1(21×21).Content:"Ver1"
Version2(25×25).Content:"Version2"
Version3(29×29).Content:"Version3QRCode"
Version4(33×33).Content:"Version4QRCode,upto50char"
Version10(57×57).Content:"VERSION10QRCODE,UPTO174CHARATHLEVEL,WITH57X57MODULESANDPLENTYOFERRORCORRECTIONTOGOAROUND.NOTETHATTHEREAREADDITIONALTRACKINGBOXES"(actuallyencodedinallcapitalletters).("Trackingboxes"aremorecommonlycalledalignmentpatterns.)
Version25(117×117)Content:1,269charactersofASCIItextdescribingQRCodes
Version40(177×177)
Errorcorrection[edit]
DamagedbutstilldecodableQRcode,Linktohttp://en.m.wikipedia.org
ExampleofaQRcodewithartisticembellishmentthatwillstillscancorrectlythankstoerrorcorrection
QRcodesuseReed–Solomonerrorcorrectionoverthefinitefield
F
256
{\displaystyle\mathbb{F}_{256}}
,theelementsofwhichareencodedasbytesof8bits;thebyte
b
7
b
6
b
5
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
b
0
{\displaystyleb_{7}b_{6}b_{5}b_{4}b_{3}b_{2}b_{1}b_{0}}
withastandardnumericalvalue
∑
i
=
0
7
b
i
2
i
{\displaystyle\textstyle\sum_{i=0}^{7}b_{i}2^{i}}
encodesthefieldelement
∑
i
=
0
7
b
i
α
i
{\displaystyle\textstyle\sum_{i=0}^{7}b_{i}\alpha^{i}}
where
α
∈
F
256
{\displaystyle\alpha\in\mathbb{F}_{256}}
istakentobeaprimitiveelementsatisfying
α
8
+
α
4
+
α
3
+
α
2
+
1
=
0
{\displaystyle\alpha^{8}+\alpha^{4}+\alpha^{3}+\alpha^{2}+1=0}
.TheReed–Solomoncodeusesoneof37differentpolynomialsover
F
256
{\displaystyle\mathbb{F}_{256}}
,withdegreesrangingfrom7to68,dependingonhowmanyerrorcorrectionbytesthecodeadds.ItisimpliedbytheformofReed–Solomonused(systematicBCHview)thatthesepolynomialsareallontheform
∏
i
=
0
n
−
1
(
x
−
α
i
)
{\textstyle\prod_{i=0}^{n-1}(x-\alpha^{i})}
,howevertherulesforselectingthedegree
n
{\displaystylen}
arespecifictotheQRstandard.
WhendiscussingtheReed–Solomoncodephasethereissomeriskforconfusion,inthattheQRISOstandardusesthetermcodewordfortheelementsof
F
256
{\displaystyle\mathbb{F}_{256}}
,whichrespecttotheReed–Solomoncodearesymbols,whereasitusesthetermblockforwhatwithrespecttotheReed–Solomoncodearethecodewords.Thenumberofdataversuserrorcorrectionbyteswithineachblockdependson(i)theversion(sidelength)oftheQRsymboland(ii)theerrorcorrectionlevel,ofwhichtherearefour.Thehighertheerrorcorrectionlevel,thelessstoragecapacity.Thefollowingtableliststheapproximateerrorcorrectioncapabilityateachofthefourlevels:
LevelL(Low)
7%ofdatabytescanberestored.
LevelM(Medium)
15%ofdatabytescanberestored.
LevelQ(Quartile)[69]
25%ofdatabytescanberestored.
LevelH(High)
30%ofdatabytescanberestored.
InlargerQRsymbols,themessageisbrokenupintoseveralReed–Solomoncodeblocks.Theblocksizeischosensothatnoattemptismadeatcorrectingmorethan15errorsperblock;thislimitsthecomplexityofthedecodingalgorithm.Thecodeblocksaretheninterleavedtogether,makingitlesslikelythatlocalizeddamagetoaQRsymbolwilloverwhelmthecapacityofanysingleblock.
Duetoerrorcorrection,itispossibletocreateartisticQRcodesthatstillscancorrectly,butcontainintentionalerrorstomakethemmorereadableorattractivetothehumaneye,aswellastoincorporatecolors,logos,andotherfeaturesintotheQRcodeblock.[70][71]
ItisalsopossibletodesignartisticQRcodeswithoutreducingtheerrorcorrectioncapacitybymanipulatingtheunderlyingmathematicalconstructs.[72][73]ImageprocessingalgorithmsarealsousedtoreduceerrorsinQR-code.[74]
Encoding[edit]
Theformatinformationrecordstwothings:theerrorcorrectionlevelandthemaskpatternusedforthesymbol.Maskingisusedtobreakuppatternsinthedataareathatmightconfuseascanner,suchaslargeblankareasormisleadingfeaturesthatlooklikethelocatormarks.Themaskpatternsaredefinedonagridthatisrepeatedasnecessarytocoverthewholesymbol.Modulescorrespondingtothedarkareasofthemaskareinverted.TheformatinformationisprotectedfromerrorswithaBCHcode,andtwocompletecopiesareincludedineachQRsymbol.[5]
Themessagedatasetisplacedfromrighttoleftinazigzagpattern,asshownbelow.Inlargersymbols,thisiscomplicatedbythepresenceofthealignmentpatternsandtheuseofmultipleinterleavederror-correctionblocks.
Meaningofformatinformation.Intheabovefigure,theformatinformationisprotectedbya(15,5)BCHcode,whichcancorrectupto3biterrors.Thetotallengthofthecodeis15bits,ofwhich5aredatabits(2EClevel+3maskpattern)and10areextrabitsforerrorcorrection.Theformatmaskforthese15bitsis:[101011001010101].Notethatwemapthemaskedvaluesdirectlytoitsmeaninghere.
MessageplacementwithinaQRsymbol.Themessageisencodedusinga(255,249)ReedSolomoncode(shortenedto(24,18)codebyusing"padding")whichcancorrectupto3byteerrors.
Largersymbolillustratinginterleavedblocks.Themessagehas26databytesandisencodedusingtwoReed-Solomoncodeblocks.Eachblockisa(255,233)ReedSolomoncode(shortenedto(35,13)code),whichcancorrectupto11byteerrorsinasingleburst,containing13databytesand22"parity"bytesappendedtothedatabytes.Thetwo35-byteReed-Solomoncodeblocksareinterleavedsoitcancorrectupto22byteerrorsinasingleburst(resultinginatotalof70codebytes).ThesymbolachieveslevelHerrorcorrection.
ThegeneralstructureofaQRencodingisasasequenceof4bitindicatorswithpayloadlengthdependentontheindicatormode(e.g.byteencodingpayloadlengthisdependentonthefirstbyte).[75]
Modeindicator
Description
Typicalstructure'[type :sizesinbits]'
0001
Numeric
[0001 :4][CharacterCountIndicator :variable][DataBitStream :31⁄3×charcount]
0010
Alphanumeric
[0010 :4][CharacterCountIndicator :variable][DataBitStream :51⁄2×charcount]
0100
Byteencoding
[0100 :4][CharacterCountIndicator :variable][DataBitStream :8×charcount]
1000
Kanjiencoding
[1000 :4][CharacterCountIndicator :variable][DataBitStream :13×charcount]
0011
Structuredappend
[0011 :4][SymbolPosition :4][TotalSymbols:4][Parity :8]
0111
ECI
[0111 :4][ECIAssignmentnumber :variable]
0101
FNC1infirstposition
[0101 :4][Numeric/Alphanumeric/Byte/Kanjipayload :variable]
1001
FNC1insecondposition
[1001 :4][ApplicationIndicator :8][Numeric/Alphanumeric/Byte/Kanjipayload :variable]
0000
Endofmessage
[0000 :4]
Note:
CharacterCountIndicatordependsonhowmanymodulesareinaQRcode(SymbolVersion).
ECIAssignmentnumberSize:
8×1bitsifECIAssignmentBitstreamstartswith'0'
8×2bitsifECIAssignmentBitstreamstartswith'10'
8×3bitsifECIAssignmentBitstreamstartswith'110'
Four-bitindicatorsareusedtoselecttheencodingmodeandconveyotherinformation.
Encodingmodes
Indicator
Meaning
0001
Numericencoding(10bitsper3digits)
0010
Alphanumericencoding(11bitsper2characters)
0100
Byteencoding(8bitspercharacter)
1000
Kanjiencoding(13bitspercharacter)
0011
Structuredappend(usedtosplitamessageacrossmultipleQRsymbols)
0111
ExtendedChannelInterpretation(selectalternatecharactersetorencoding)
0101
FNC1infirstposition(seeCode128formoreinformation)
1001
FNC1insecondposition
0000
Endofmessage(Terminator)
EncodingmodescanbemixedasneededwithinaQRsymbol.(e.g.,aurlwithalongstringofalphanumericcharacters)
[ModeIndicator][Modebitstream]-->[ModeIndicator][Modebitstream]-->etc...-->[0000Endofmessage(Terminator)]
Aftereveryindicatorthatselectsanencodingmodeisalengthfieldthattellshowmanycharactersareencodedinthatmode.Thenumberofbitsinthelengthfielddependsontheencodingandthesymbolversion.
Numberofbitsinalengthfield(CharacterCountIndicator)
Encoding
Ver.1–9
10–26
27–40
Numeric
10
12
14
Alphanumeric
9
11
13
Byte
8
16
16
Kanji
8
10
12
Alphanumericencodingmodestoresamessagemorecompactlythanthebytemodecan,butcannotstorelower-caselettersandhasonlyalimitedselectionofpunctuationmarks,whicharesufficientforrudimentarywebaddresses.Twocharactersarecodedinan11-bitvaluebythisformula:
V=45×C1+C2
Thishastheexceptionthatthelastcharacterinanalphanumericstringwithanoddlengthisreadasa6-bitvalueinstead.
Alphanumericcharactercodes
Code
Character
Code
Character
Code
Character
Code
Character
Code
Character
00
0
09
9
18
I
27
R
36
Space
01
1
10
A
19
J
28
S
37
$
02
2
11
B
20
K
29
T
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Decodingexample[edit]
ThefollowingimagesoffermoreinformationabouttheQRcode.
1–Introduction
2–Structure
3–Layout&Encoding
4–Levels&Masks
5–Protocols
Variants[edit]
Model1[edit]
Model1QRcodeisanolderversionofthespecification.Itisvisuallysimilartothewidelyseenmodel2codes,butlacksalignmentpatterns.Differencesareinthebottomrightcorner,andinthemidsectionsofthebottomandrightedgesareadditionalfunctionalregions.
Model1QRcodeexample
Model1QRcodefunctionalregions
MicroQRcode[edit]
MicroQRcodeisasmallerversionoftheQRcodestandardforapplicationswheresymbolsizeislimited.Therearefourdifferentversions(sizes)ofMicroQRcodes:thesmallestis11×11modules;thelargestcanhold35numericcharacters.[76]
MicroQRcodeexample
MicroQRcodefunctionalregions
IQRcode[edit]
IQRCodeisanalternativetoexistingQRcodesdevelopedbyDensoWave.IQRcodescanbecreatedinsquareorrectangularformations;thisisintendedforsituationswherearectangularbarcodewouldotherwisebemoreappropriate,suchascylindricalobjects.IQRcodescanfitthesameamountofinformationin30%lessspace.Thereare61versionsofsquareIQRcodes,and15versionsofrectangularcodes.Forsquares,theminimumsizeis9x9modules;rectangleshaveaminimumof19x5modules.IQRcodesadderrorcorrectionlevelS,whichallowsfor50%errorcorrection.[77]IQRCodeshavenotyetbeengivenanISOspecification,andonlyproprietaryDensoWaveproductscancreateorreadIQRcodes.[78]
SecureQRcode[edit]
Mainarticle:simple:SQRcodes
SecureQuickResponse(SQR)codeisaQRcodethatcontainsa"privatedata"segmentaftertheterminatorinsteadofthespecifiedfillerbytes"ec11".[79]Thisprivatedatasegmentmustbedecipheredwithanencryptionkey.Thiscanbeusedtostoreprivateinformationandtomanagecompany'sinternalinformation.[80]
SQRcodeshavebeendevelopedbytheFORUSFoundationtoenablesecuretransactions,andpublishedunderaCreativeCommonsLicence.
TheSQRsolutionguaranteestheintegrityofthesourcedataaswellasthevalidityoftheoriginatingparty.
ThepaymentinstructionstringismadeupoftheelectronicinstructiondatafromthescannedQRcodeappendedwithaSHA-2cryptographichash.
Themessagedigestcanthenbeencryptedusingtheprivatekeyofthesender,whichthencreatesadigitalsignatureofthemessage.
Thissignaturevalidatestheintegrityofthedataandthetrustworthinessofthesender.Thisprovidesnon-repudiation,confirmingtheidentityofthesender,andthatithasnotbeentamperedwithduringtransmission.
ByembeddingtheURLandallthevariablesrequiredtoperformshoppingcarttypee-commerce,billpaymentandpeertopeerpayments,coupledwithadigitalcertificateeliminatesthepossibilityofspoofing,tampering,andmaninthemiddleattacks.
[81]
FrameQR[edit]
FrameQRisaQRcodewitha"canvasarea"thatcanbeflexiblyused.Inthecenterofthiscodeisthecanvasarea,wheregraphics,letters,andmorecanbeflexiblyarranged,makingitpossibletolayoutthecodewithoutlosingthedesignofillustrations,photos,etc.[82]
HCC2D[edit]
SamplesoftheHighCapacityColored2-Dimensional(HCC2D)code:(a)4-colorHCC2Dcodeand(b)8-colorHCC2Dcode.
ResearchershaveproposedanewHighCapacityColored2-Dimensional(HCC2D)Code,whichbuildsuponaQRcodebasisforpreservingtheQRrobustnesstodistortionsandusescolorsforincreasingdatadensity(atthisstage[when?]itisstillinprototypingphase).TheHCC2DcodespecificationisdescribedindetailsinQuerinietal.(2014),[83]whiletechniquesforcolorclassificationofHCC2DcodecellsaredescribedindetailinQueriniandItaliano(2014),[84]whichisanextendedversionofQueriniandItaliano(2013).[85]
IntroducingcolorsintoQRcodesrequiresaddressingadditionalissues.Inparticular,duringQRcodereadingonlythebrightnessinformationistakenintoaccount,whileHCC2Dcodeshavetocopewithchromaticdistortionsduringthedecodingphase.Inordertoensureadaptationtochromaticdistortionswhichariseineachscannedcode,HCC2Dcodesmakeuseofanadditionalfield:theColorPalettePattern.ThisisbecausecolorcellsofaColorPalettePatternaresupposedtobedistortedinthesamewayascolorcellsoftheEncodingRegion.Replicatedcolorpalettesareusedfortrainingmachinelearningclassifiers.
JABcode[edit]
Wikipediagreetingswithlinkencodedusing8colourJABcode.
JABcode(JustAnotherBarcode)isacolor2Dmatrixsymbologymadeofcolorsquaresarrangedineithersquareorrectanglegrids.ItwasdevelopedbyFraunhoferInstituteSIT(SecureInformationTechnology).[86]
Thecodecontainsoneprimarysymbolandoptionallymultiplesecondarysymbols.Theprimarysymbolcontainsfourfinderpatternslocatedatthecornersofthesymbol.[87]
Thecodeuseseither4or8colours.[88]The4basiccolours(cyan,magenta,yellow,black)arethe4primarycoloursofthesubtractiveCMYKcolormodelwhichisthemostwidelyusedsysteminindustryforcolourprintingonawhitebasesuchaspaper.Theother4colours(blue,red,green,white)aresecondarycoloursoftheCMYKmodelandoriginateasanequalmixtureofapairofbasiccolours.
ThebarcodeisnotsubjecttolicensingandwassubmittedtoISOstandardizationasISO23634expectedtobeapprovedatthebeginningof2021[89]andfinalizedin2022.[88]Thesoftwareisopen-sourceandpublishedundertheLGPLv2.1license.[90]Thespecificationisfreelyavailable.[87]
Becausethecolouraddsathirddimensiontothetwo-dimensionalmatrix,aJABcodecancontainmoreinformationinthesameareacomparedtotwo-colour(blackandwhite)codes–theoreticallytwiceasmuchdatafora4colourcodeandthreetimesmorefor8coloursassumingthesameencodingalgorithm.Thiscanallowstorageofanentiremessageinthebarcode,ratherthanjuststoringpartialdatawithareferencetoafullmessagesomewhereelse(suchasalinktoawebsite),thuseliminatingtheneedforadditionalalways-availableinfrastructurebeyondtheprintedbarcodeitself.Itmaybeusedtodigitallysignencrypteddigitalversionofprintedlegaldocuments,contractsandcertificates(diplomas,training),medicalprescriptionsorprovideproductauthenticityassurancetoincreaseprotectionagainstcounterfeits.[88]
License[edit]
TheuseofQRcodetechnologyisfreelylicensedaslongasusersfollowthestandardsforQRCodedocumentedwithJISorISO.Non-standardizedcodesmayrequirespeciallicensing.[91]
DensoWaveownsanumberofpatentsonQRcodetechnology,buthaschosentoexercisetheminalimitedfashion.[91]InordertopromotewidespreadusageofthetechnologyDensoWavechosetowaiveitsrightstoakeypatentinitspossessionforstandardizedcodesonly.[13]IntheUS,thegrantedQRcodepatentisUS5726435 ,andinJapanJP2938338 ,bothofwhichhaveexpired.TheEuropeanPatentOfficegrantedpatentEP0672994 toDensoWave,whichwasthenvalidatedintoFrench,UK,andGermanpatents,allofwhichexpiredinMarch2015.[92]
ThetextQRCodeitselfisaregisteredtrademarkandwordmarkofDensoWaveIncorporated.[93]InUK,thetrademarkisregisteredasE921775,theword"QRCode",withafilingdateof03/09/1998.[94]TheUKversionofthetrademarkisbasedontheKabushikiKaishaDenso(DENSOCORPORATION)trademark,filedasTrademark000921775,theword"QRCode",on03/09/1998andregisteredon6/12/1999withtheEuropeanUnionOHIM(OfficeforHarmonizationintheInternalMarket).[95]
TheU.S.Trademarkfortheword"QRCode"isTrademark2435991andwasfiledon29September1998withanamendedregistrationdateof13March2001,assignedtoDensoCorporation.[96]
Risks[edit]
TheonlycontextinwhichcommonQRcodescancarryexecutabledataistheURLdatatype.TheseURLsmayhostJavaScriptcode,whichcanbeusedtoexploitvulnerabilitiesinapplicationsonthehostsystem,suchasthereader,thewebbrowserortheimageviewer,sinceareaderwilltypicallysendthedatatotheapplicationassociatedwiththedatatypeusedbytheQRcode.
Inthecaseofnosoftwareexploits,maliciousQRcodescombinedwithapermissivereadercanstillputacomputer'scontentsanduser'sprivacyatrisk.Thispracticeisknownas"attagging",aportmanteauof"attacktagging".[97]TheyareeasilycreatedandcanbeaffixedoverlegitimateQRcodes.[98]Onasmartphone,thereader'spermissionsmayallowuseofthecamera,fullInternetaccess,read/writecontactdata,GPS,readbrowserhistory,read/writelocalstorage,andglobalsystemchanges.[99][100][101]
Risksincludelinkingtodangerouswebsiteswithbrowserexploits,enablingthemicrophone/camera/GPS,andthenstreamingthosefeedstoaremoteserver,analysisofsensitivedata(passwords,files,contacts,transactions),[102]andsendingemail/SMS/IMmessagesorpacketsforDDoSaspartofabotnet,corruptingprivacysettings,stealingidentity,[103]andevencontainingmaliciouslogicthemselvessuchasJavaScript[104]oravirus.[105][106]Theseactionscouldoccurinthebackgroundwhiletheuserisonlyseeingthereaderopeningaseeminglyharmlesswebpage.[107]InRussia,amaliciousQRcodecausedphonesthatscannedittosendpremiumtextsatafeeof$6each.[97]
Seealso[edit]
AztecCode
DataMatrix
PDF417
QRpedia
SnapTag
SPARQCode
Touchatag
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Bibliography[edit]
BSISO/IEC18004:2006.Informationtechnology.Automaticidentificationanddatacapturetechniques.Barcodesymbology.QRCode.Geneva:ISO/IEC.2000.p. 114.OCLC 60816353.
BSISO/IEC18004:2006.Informationtechnology.Automaticidentificationanddatacapturetechniques.QRCode2005barcodesymbologyspecification.London:BSI.2007.p. 126.ISBN 978-0-580-67368-9.
Externallinks[edit]
WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoQuickResponseCodes.
ReedSolomonCodesforCoders–anelaboratetutorialonWikiversity,coveringbothQRcodestructureandtheReedSolomoncodesusedtoencodethedata.
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-8
-8-I
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
-16
8879
9000/9001
9036
9075
9126
9141
9227
9241
9293
9314
9362
9407
9496
9506
9529
9564
9592/9593
9594
9660
9797-1
9897
9899
9945
9984
9985
9995
10000–19999
10005
10006
10007
10116
10118-3
10160
10161
10165
10179
10206
10218
10303
-11
-21
-22
-28
-238
10383
10487
10585
10589
10628
10646
10664
10746
10861
10957
10962
10967
11073
11170
11179
11404
11544
11783
11784
11785
11801
11889
11898
11940(-2)
11941
11941(TR)
11992
12006
12182
12207
12234-2
12620
13211
-1
-2
13216
13250
13399
13406-2
13450
13485
13490
13567
13568
13584
13616
13816
14000
14031
14224
14289
14396
14443
14496
-2
-3
-6
-10
-11
-12
-14
-17
-20
14617
14644
14649
14651
14698
14764
14882
14971
15022
15189
15288
15291
15292
15398
15408
15444
-3
15445
15438
15504
15511
15686
15693
15706
-2
15707
15897
15919
15924
15926
15926WIP
15930
16023
16262
16355-1
16612-2
16750
16949(TS)
17024
17025
17100
17203
17369
17442
17799
18000
18004
18014
18245
18629
18916
19005
19011
19092
-1
-2
19114
19115
19125
19136
19407
19439
19500
19501
19502
19503
19505
19506
19507
19508
19509
19510
19600
19752
19757
19770
19775-1
19794-5
19831
20000–29999
20000
20022
20121
20400
20802
21000
21047
21500
21827
22000
22300
22395
23090-3
23270
23271
23360
24517
24613
24617
24707
25178
25964
26000
26262
26300
26324
27000series
27000
27001
27002
27005
27006
27729
28000
29110
29148
29199-2
29500
30000+
30170
31000
32000
37001
38500
40500
42010
45001
50001
55000
56000
80000
Category
AuthoritycontrolGeneral
IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany)
Nationallibraries
UnitedStates
Japan
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