Twitter - Wikipedia
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Twitter is an American microblogging and social networking service on which users post and ... In February 2010, Twitter users were sending 50 million tweets per day.
Twitter
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Jumptonavigation
Jumptosearch
Americansocialnetworkingservice
"Tweeting"and"Tweeted"redirecthere.Fortheanimalbehavior,seebirdvocalization.Forotheruses,seeTweet(disambiguation).
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Twitter,Inc.Screenshot
Thedefaultpageshowntologged-outusersTypeofbusinessPublicTypeofsiteNews,socialnetworkingserviceAvailable inMultilingualTraded asNYSE: TWTRS&P500ComponentFoundedMarch 21,2006;16yearsago (2006-03-21)HeadquartersSanFrancisco,California,U.S.Area servedWorldwideFounder(s)JackDorseyNoahGlassBizStoneEvanWilliamsKey people
BretTaylor(Chair)
ParagAgrawal(CEO)[1]
NedSegal(CFO)[2]
IndustryInternetRevenueUS$3.72billion(2020)OperatingincomeUS$27million(2020)NetincomeUS$−1.14billion(2020)TotalassetsUS$13.37billion(2020)TotalequityUS$7.97billion(2020)Employees5,500+(December2020)[3]SubsidiariesVinePeriscopeURLtwitter.comRegistrationRequiredUsers330millionmonthlyactiveusers(Q12019)LaunchedJuly 15,2006;15yearsago (2006-07-15)Current statusActiveNativeclient(s)oniOS,Android,WindowsPhone,MicrosoftWindows,macOS,WebWritten inJavaRubyScalaJavaScript[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]
AtweetsentfromtheInternationalSpaceStationaccount,includingaphotograph,alinkandtwohashtags
TwitterisanAmericanmicrobloggingandsocialnetworkingserviceonwhichuserspostandinteractwithmessagesknownas"tweets".Registereduserscanpost,like,andretweettweets,butunregistereduserscanonlyreadthosethatarepubliclyavailable.UsersinteractwithTwitterthroughbrowserormobilefrontendsoftware,orprogrammaticallyviaitsAPIs.PriortoApril2020,serviceswereaccessibleviaSMS.[14]TheserviceisprovidedbyTwitter,Inc.,acorporationbasedinSanFrancisco,California,andhasmorethan25officesaroundtheworld.[15]Tweetswereoriginallyrestrictedto140characters,butthelimitwasdoubledto280fornon-CJKlanguagesinNovember2017.[16]Audioandvideotweetsremainlimitedto140secondsformostaccounts.
TwitterwascreatedbyJackDorsey,NoahGlass,BizStone,andEvanWilliamsinMarch2006andlaunchedinJulyofthatyear.By2012[update],morethan100millionusersposted340milliontweetsaday,[17]andtheservicehandledanaverageof1.6billionsearchqueriesperday.[18][19][20]In2013,itwasoneofthetenmost-visitedwebsitesandhasbeendescribedas"theSMSoftheInternet".[21]AsofQ12019[update],Twitterhadmorethan330millionmonthlyactiveusers.[11]Inpractice,thevastmajorityoftweetsarewrittenbyaminorityofusers.[22][23]
Contents
1History
1.12006–2007:Creationandinitialreaction
1.22007–2010
1.32010–2014
1.42014–2019
1.52019–present
2Leadership
2.1Listofchairmen
2.2ListofCEOs
3Appearanceandfeatures
3.1Tweets
3.1.1Content
3.1.2Format
3.1.2.1Hashtags,usernames,retweetsandreplies
3.1.2.2TwitterLists
3.1.2.3UsingSMS
3.1.2.4Characterlimits
3.1.2.5URLshortener
3.1.3Trendingtopics
3.1.4Moments
3.2Addingandfollowingcontent
3.3Verifiedaccounts
3.4Mobile
3.5Third-partyapplications
3.6Relatedheadlinesfeature
3.7Polls
3.8Integratedphoto-sharingservice
3.9Streamingvideo
3.10Accountarchival
3.10.1BrowsablelegacyTwitterarchiveformat
3.11Spaces
3.12Fleets
3.13TwitterBlue
3.14TipJar
3.15TheShopModule
3.16SafetyMode
3.17LiveShopping
3.18Shops
4Usage
4.1Demographics
4.2Levelsofuse
5Branding
6Finances
6.1Funding
6.2Revenuesources
6.3Stocklaunchandtaxissues
6.4Contributions
6.5Advertisingbans
6.6Usermonetization
7Technology
7.1Implementation
7.2Interface
7.3Outages
8Useraccounts
8.1Privacy,securityandharassment
8.2Suspectandcontestedaccounts
8.3Maliciousandfakeaccounts
8.4Twitterbots
8.4.1Effects
9Developers
9.1Innovatorspatentagreement
9.2Opensource
10Society
10.1Usage
10.1.1Protesters
10.1.2Governments
10.1.3Far-rightcontent
10.2Impact
10.2.1Instant,short,andfrequentcommunication
10.2.2Emergencyuse
10.2.3Education
10.2.4Publicfigures
10.2.5Worldleaders
10.2.6Religion
10.3Censorshipandmoderation
10.3.1Hashtagsuppression
10.3.2Trust&SafetyCouncil
10.3.3Moderationoftweets
10.3.4ModerationofPresidentDonaldTrump
10.4Fines,penaltiesandsanctions
10.4.1Violationofcampaignfinancelaws
11Television
12Statistics
12.1Useraccountswithlargefollowerbase
12.2Oldestaccounts
12.3Recordtweets
13Seealso
14Notes
15References
16Furtherreading
17Externallinks
History
Furtherinformation:TimelineofTwitter
2006–2007:Creationandinitialreaction
Asketch,c.2006,byJackDorsey,envisioninganSMS-basedsocialnetwork.
Twitter'soriginslieina"daylongbrainstormingsession"heldbyboardmembersofthepodcastingcompanyOdeo.JackDorsey,thenanundergraduatestudentatNewYorkUniversity,introducedtheideaofanindividualusinganSMSservicetocommunicatewithasmallgroup.[24][25]Theoriginalprojectcodenamefortheservicewastwttr,thedisemvowelledversionofthewordtwitter,anideathatWilliamslaterascribedtoNoahGlass,[26]inspiredbyFlickrandthefive-characterlengthofAmericanSMSshortcodes.Thedecisionwasalsopartlyduetothefactthatthedomaintwitter.comwasalreadyinuse,anditwassixmonthsafterthelaunchoftwttrthatthecrewpurchasedthedomainandchangedthenameoftheservicetoTwitter.[27]Thedevelopersinitiallyconsidered"10958"asashortcode,butlaterchangeditto"40404"for"easeofuseandmemorability".[28]WorkontheprojectstartedonMarch21,2006,whenDorseypublishedthefirstTwittermessageat9:50 p.m.PST(UTC−08:00):"justsettingupmytwttr".[4]
Dorseyhasexplainedtheoriginofthe"Twitter"title:[29]
...wecameacrosstheword"twitter",anditwasjustperfect.Thedefinitionwas"ashortburstofinconsequentialinformation",and"chirpsfrombirds".Andthat'sexactlywhattheproductwas.
ThefirstTwitterprototype,developedbyDorseyandcontractorFlorianWeber,wasusedasaninternalserviceforOdeoemployees.[30]ThefullversionwasintroducedpubliclyonJuly15,2006.[12]InOctober2006,BizStone,EvanWilliams,Dorsey,andothermembersofOdeoformedObviousCorporationandacquiredOdeo,togetherwithitsassets—includingOdeo.comandTwitter.com—fromtheinvestorsandshareholders.[31]WilliamsfiredGlass,whowassilentabouthispartinTwitter'sstartupuntil2011.[32]TwitterspunoffintoitsowncompanyinApril2007.[33]Williamsprovidedinsightintotheambiguitythatdefinedthisearlyperiodina2013interview:[34]
WithTwitter,itwasn'tclearwhatitwas.Theycalleditasocialnetwork,theycalleditmicroblogging,butitwashardtodefine,becauseitdidn'treplaceanything.Therewasthispathofdiscoverywithsomethinglikethat,whereovertimeyoufigureoutwhatitis.Twitteractuallychangedfromwhatwethoughtitwasinthebeginning,whichwedescribedasstatusupdatesandasocialutility.Itisthat,inpart,buttheinsightweeventuallycametowasTwitterwasreallymoreofaninformationnetworkthanitisasocialnetwork.
2007–2010
ThetippingpointforTwitter'spopularitywasthe2007SouthbySouthwestInteractive(SXSWi)conference.Duringtheevent,Twitterusageincreasedfrom20,000tweetsperdayto60,000.[35]"TheTwitterpeoplecleverlyplacedtwo60-inchplasmascreensintheconferencehallways,exclusivelystreamingTwittermessages,"remarkedNewsweek'sStevenLevy."Hundredsofconference-goerskepttabsoneachotherviaconstanttwitters.Panelistsandspeakersmentionedtheservice,andthebloggersinattendancetoutedit."[36]Reactionattheconferencewashighlypositive.BloggerScottBealesaidthatTwitterwas"absolutelyruling"SXSWi.SocialsoftwareresearcherDanahBoydsaidTwitterwas"owning"theconference.[37]Twitterstaffreceivedthefestival'sWebAwardprizewiththeremark"we'dliketothankyouin140charactersorless.Andwejustdid!"[38]
Thecompanyexperiencedrapidinitialgrowth.Ithad400,000tweetspostedperquarterin2007.Thisgrewto100milliontweetspostedperquarterin2008.InFebruary2010,Twitterusersweresending50milliontweetsperday.[39]ByMarch2010,thecompanyrecordedover70,000registeredapplications.[40]AsofJune2010,about65milliontweetswerepostedeachday,equalingabout750tweetssenteachsecond,accordingtoTwitter.[41]AsofMarch2011,thatwasabout140milliontweetsposteddaily.[42]AsnotedonCompete.com,Twittermoveduptothethird-highest-rankingsocialnetworkingsiteinJanuary2009fromitspreviousrankoftwenty-second.[43]
JackDorsey,co-founderandCEOofTwitter,in2009
Twitter'susagespikesduringprominentevents.Forexample,arecordwassetduringthe2010FIFAWorldCupwhenfanswrote2,940tweetspersecondinthethirty-secondperiodafterJapanscoredagainstCameroononJune14,2010.Therecordwasbrokenagainwhen3,085tweetspersecondwerepostedaftertheLosAngelesLakers'victoryinthe2010NBAFinalsonJune17,2010,[44]andthenagainatthecloseofJapan'svictoryoverDenmarkintheWorldCupwhenuserspublished3,283tweetspersecond.[45]Therecordwassetagainduringthe2011FIFAWomen'sWorldCupFinalbetweenJapanandtheUnitedStates,when7,196tweetspersecondwerepublished.[46]WhenAmericansingerMichaelJacksondiedonJune25,2009,Twitterserverscrashedafteruserswereupdatingtheirstatustoincludethewords"MichaelJackson"atarateof100,000tweetsperhour.[47]ThecurrentrecordasofAugust3,2013,wassetinJapan,with143,199tweetspersecondduringatelevisionscreeningofthemovieCastleintheSky[48](beatingthepreviousrecordof33,388,alsosetbyJapanforthetelevisionscreeningofthesamemovie).[49]
Thefirstunassistedoff-EarthTwittermessagewaspostedfromtheInternationalSpaceStationbyNASAastronautT.J.CreameronJanuary22,2010.[50]BylateNovember2010,anaverageofadozenupdatesperdaywerepostedontheastronauts'communalaccount,@NASA_Astronauts.NASAhasalsohostedover25"tweetups",eventsthatprovideguestswithVIPaccesstoNASAfacilitiesandspeakerswiththegoalofleveragingparticipants'socialnetworkstofurthertheoutreachgoalsofNASA.InAugust2010,thecompanyappointedAdamBainfromNewsCorp.'sFoxAudienceNetworkaspresidentofrevenue.[51][relevant?–discuss]
TwitteracquiredapplicationdeveloperAtebitsonApril11,2010.AtebitshaddevelopedtheAppleDesignAward-winningTwitterclientTweetiefortheMacandiPhone.Theapplication,nowcalled"Twitter"anddistributedfreeofcharge,istheofficialTwitterclientfortheiPhone,iPadandMac.[52]
2010–2014
FromSeptemberthroughOctober2010,thecompanybeganrollingout"NewTwitter",anentirelyrevampededitionoftwitter.com.ChangesincludedtheabilitytoseepicturesandvideoswithoutleavingTwitteritselfbyclickingonindividualtweetswhichcontainlinkstoimagesandclipsfromavarietyofsupportedwebsitesincludingYouTubeandFlickr,andacompleteoverhauloftheinterface,whichshiftedlinkssuchas'@mentions'and'Retweets'abovetheTwitterstream,while'Messages'and'LogOut'becameaccessibleviaablackbarattheverytopoftwitter.com.AsofNovember1,2010,thecompanyconfirmedthatthe"NewTwitterexperience"hadbeenrolledouttoallusers.In2019,Twitterwasannouncedtobethe10thmostdownloadedmobileappofthedecade,from2010to2019.[53]
OnApril5,2011,Twittertestedanewhomepageandphasedoutthe"OldTwitter".[54]However,aglitchcameaboutafterthepagewaslaunched,sotheprevious"retro"homepagewasstillinuseuntiltheissueswereresolved;thenewhomepagewasreintroducedonApril20.[55][56]OnDecember8,2011,Twitteroverhauleditswebsiteoncemoretofeaturethe"Fly"design,whichtheservicesaysiseasierfornewuserstofollowandpromotesadvertising.InadditiontotheHometab,theConnectandDiscovertabswereintroducedalongwitharedesignedprofileandtimelineofTweets.Thesite'slayouthasbeencomparedtothatofFacebook.[57][58]OnFebruary21,2012,itwasannouncedthatTwitterandYandexagreedtoapartnership.Yandex,aRussiansearchengine,findsvaluewithinthepartnershipduetoTwitter'srealtimenewsfeeds.Twitter'sdirectorofbusinessdevelopmentexplainedthatitisimportanttohaveTwittercontentwhereTwitterusersgo.[59]OnMarch21,2012,Twittercelebrateditssixthbirthdaywhilealsoannouncingthatithad140 millionusersand340 milliontweetsperday.Thenumberofuserswasup40%fromtheirSeptember2011number,whichwassaidtohavebeenat100 millionatthetime.[60]
InApril2012,TwitterannouncedthatitwasopeninganofficeinDetroit,withtheaimofworkingwithautomotivebrandsandadvertisingagencies.[61]TwitteralsoexpandeditsofficeinDublin.[62]OnJune5,2012,amodifiedlogowasunveiledthroughthecompanyblog,removingthetexttoshowcasetheslightlyredesignedbirdasthesolesymbolofTwitter.[63][64]OnOctober5,2012,TwitteracquiredavideoclipcompanycalledVinethatlaunchedinJanuary2013.[65][66]TwitterreleasedVineasastandaloneappthatallowsuserstocreateandsharesix-secondloopingvideoclipsonJanuary24,2013.VinevideossharedonTwitterarevisibledirectlyinusers'Twitterfeeds.[67]Duetoaninfluxofinappropriatecontent,itisnowrated17+inApple's[68]appstore.[69]OnDecember18,2012,Twitterannouncedithadsurpassed200 millionmonthlyactiveusers.Twitterhit100 millionmonthlyactiveusersinSeptember2011.[70]
OnJanuary28,2013,TwitteracquiredCrashlyticsinordertobuildoutitsmobiledeveloperproducts.[71]OnApril18,2013,TwitterlaunchedamusicappcalledTwitterMusicfortheiPhone.[72]OnAugust28,2013,TwitteracquiredTrendrr,[73]followedbytheacquisitionofMoPubonSeptember9,2013.[74]AsofSeptember2013,thecompany'sdatashowedthat200 millionuserssentover400 milliontweetsdaily,withnearly60%oftweetssentfrommobiledevices.[75]
DuringSuperBowlXLVIIonFebruary3,2013,thepowerwentoutintheMercedes-BenzSuperdomeMondelezInternationalvicepresidentLisaMannwasaskedtotweet,"Youcanstilldunkinthedark",referringtoOreocookies.Sheapproved,andasshetoldAdAgein2020,"literallytheworldchangedwhenIwokeupthenextmorning."Thisbecameamilestoneinthedevelopmentofcommentingdailyonculture.[76]
2014–2019
InApril2014,TwitterunderwentaredesignthatmadethesiteresembleFacebooksomewhat,withprofilepictureandbiographyinacolumnlefttothetimeline,andafull-widthheaderimagewithparallaxscrollingeffect.[a]ThatlayoutwasusedasmainforthedesktopfrontenduntilJuly2019,undergoingchangesovertimesuchasremovalofshortcutbuttonstojumptothepreviousornexttweetinearly2017,androundedprofilepicturessinceJune2017.[77][78][79]
OnJune4,2014,TwitterannouncedthatitwouldacquireNamoMedia,atechnologyfirmspecializingin"nativeadvertising"formobiledevices.[80]OnJune19,2014,TwitterannouncedthatithadreachedanundiscloseddealtobuySnappyTV,aservicethathelpseditandsharevideofromtelevisionbroadcasts.[81][82]ThecompanywashelpingbroadcastersandrightsholderstosharevideocontentbothorganicallyacrosssocialandviaTwitter'sAmplifyprogram.[83]InJuly2014,TwitterannouncedthatitintendedtobuyayoungcompanycalledCardSpringforanundisclosedsum.CardSpringenabledretailerstoofferonlineshopperscouponsthattheycouldautomaticallysynctotheircreditcardsinordertoreceivediscountswhentheyshoppedinphysicalstores.[84]OnJuly31,2014,Twitterannouncedthatithadacquiredasmallpassword-securitystartupcalledMitro.[85]OnOctober29,2014,TwitterannouncedanewpartnershipwithIBM.ThepartnershipwasintendedtohelpbusinessesuseTwitterdatatounderstandtheircustomers,businessesandothertrends.[86]
OnFebruary11,2015,TwitterannouncedthatithadacquiredNiche,anadvertisingnetworkforsocialmediastars,foundedbyRobFishmanandDarrenLachtman.[87]Theacquisitionpricewasreportedly$50 million.[88]OnMarch13,2015,TwitterannounceditsacquisitionofPeriscope,anappthatallowslivestreamingofvideo.[89]InApril2015,theTwitter.comdesktophomepagechanged.[90]TwitterannouncedthatithadacquiredTellApart,acommerceadstechfirm,with$532 millionstock.[91][92]Laterintheyearitbecameapparentthatgrowthhadslowed,accordingtoFortune,[93]BusinessInsider,[94]MarketingLand[95]andothernewswebsitesincludingQuartz(in2016).[96]InJune2016,TwitteracquiredanartificialintelligencestartupcalledMagicPonyfor$150 million.[97][98]
SinceMay2018,tweetrepliesdeemedbyanartificialintelligencetobedetractivefromconversationareinitiallyhidden,andonlyloadedthroughactuatingaShowmorerepliesbuttonatthebottom.[99]
2019–present
In2019,Twitterredesigneditsuserinterfaceyetagain.Thisnewest"newTwitter"wasdeployedin"agradualrollout".[100]
OnJuly15,2019,TwitterendedsupportforTLS1.0and1.1connection.[101]
InOctober2019,thetweethistoryoftheFortnitevideogame'saccountwasresurrectedafterappearingdeletedduringamarketingcampaign.Thisistheonlydocumentedoccurrenceofsuchresurrection.[102]
Twittersawsomewhatdramaticgrowthin2020,possiblyduetotheCOVID-19pandemic.[103]Duringsaidpandemic,Twittersawanincreaseduseoftheplatformformisinformationrelatedtothepandemic.[104]TwitterannouncedinMarch2020thatitwouldstartmarkingtweetswhichmaycontainmisleadinginformation,insomecasesitwillprovidelinkstopagesoffact-checkinginformation.[105]
AmajorhackofTwitteronJuly15,2020,affected130high-profileaccounts,bothverifiedandunverifiedonessuchasBarackObama,BillGates,andElonMusk;thehackallowedbitcoinscammerstosendtweetsviathecompromisedaccountsthataskedthefollowerstosendbitcointoagivenpublicaddress,withthepromisetodoubletheirmoney.[106]Withinafewhours,Twitterdisabledtweetingandresetpasswordsfromallverifiedaccounts.[106]AnalysisoftheeventrevealedthatthescammershadusedsocialengineeringtoobtaincredentialsfromTwitteremployeestoaccessanadministrationtoolusedbyTwittertoviewandchangetheseaccounts'personaldetailsastogainaccessaspartofa"smashandgrab"attempttomakemoneyquickly,withanestimatedUS$120,000inbitcoindepositedinvariousaccountsbeforeTwitterintervened.[107]SeverallawenforcemententitiesincludingtheFBIlaunchedinvestigationsintotheattacktodeterminetheperpetratorsoverconcernsofbroaderimplicationsofsuchahackinthefuture.[108]
OnJune1,2020,Twitterdeactivatedthelegacydesktopfrontendoftheirwebsitethathadoriginallybeenintroducedin2014,[109][110]leavingtheprogressivewebappversionwhichwasoriginallyintroducedinApril2017as"TwitterLite"formobilephones[111]andusedbydefaultsinceJuly2019[112]astheonlyoption.
InNovember2020,Twitterannouncedthatitwoulddevelopasocialaudiofeatureonitsplatform.[113]Later,InDecember2020,TwitterbeganbetatestingitssocialaudiofeatureknownasSpaceswithiOSusersontheirplatform.[114]
Screencaptureof"M2MobileWeb"withintendaysbeforeshutdown
"M2MobileWeb",theoriginalmobilewebfrontendofTwitter,laterservedasfallbacklegacyversiontoclientswithoutJavaScriptsupportandincompatiblebrowserssuchasgameconsoleswithlimitedwebbrowsingcapability.ItwasshutdowninDecember2020.[115]
DuringtheGeorgeFloydprotestsandthroughthe2020election,misinformationspreadbyDonaldTrumpledtoTwitterexpandingapolicywheretheyaddeddisclaimerstomisinformation.[116][117]TwitterwasamongtheplatformsassociatedwiththestormingoftheUnitedStatesCapitolonJanuary6,2021.AccordingtotheAssociatedPress,"federallawenforcementauthoritiessaidthattherewasactivityonTwitter,butthattheyweren'texpectingthelevelofviolencetheyultimatelysawlastWednesday."[118]ThisledtoTrumpbeingsuspendedfromTwitterforglorifyingviolence,amongotherreasonssuchasfalseallegationsofelectionfraud.AccordingtoresearcherShannonMcGregor,"Twitter'spermanentsuspensionofTrump'sTwitteraccountislongoverdue."[119]However,amongconservativesandsomeEuropeanleaders,adegreeofcontroversyensuedoverthepowerheldbyaprivatecompanyoverspeech.[120]NathanAkehurstofJacobinMagazinesuggestedthat"TwitterprofitedfromDonaldTrump'sracistoutburstsforyears,onlytodeletehisaccountafewdaysbeforehisdeparture".[121]
OnJanuary26,2021,TwitteracquiredRevue,anemailnewsletterservicetocompetewithplatformslikeSubstack.[122]
OnFebruary25,2021,TwitterannouncedSuperFollows,asubscriptionserviceallowingcontentcreatorstoreceivepaymentsfortheircontent.[123][124]
InMarch2021,TwitterstartedbetatestingSpacesforAndroidusers.[125]OnMarch5,itwasannouncedthatTwitterwasworkingonafeaturethatwouldofferusersashortwindowoftimetorethinkatweetaftertheyhitsend.TwitterconfirmedtoCNNthatitistestinganundooptionthatcouldpotentiallyletuserscorrectoreventoretractatweetbeforeitispostedonthesite.ThefeaturewasdiscoveredbyJaneManchunWong,anappdeveloperwhohasaproventrackrecordofuncoveringnewtoolsonsocialnetworksbeforetheyareofficiallyreleased.WongpostedaGIFontheplatformwhichshowablue"undo"barthatappearsunderthewords"YourTweetwassent."[126]
In2021,Twitterisadvancinganopensourceinitiativethatcouldbeusedbyanysocialmediaplatformandwouldmakecontentmoderationmoretransparentwithamorerobustappealsprocess.CalledBluesky,theuseofsuchanopenprotocolwouldrelievecompaniesofthesoleresponsibilityforbeingcentralizedcuratorsofcontent.[127]TheTwitterresearchteamthatbeganworkonthiseffortwassetupinlate2019.[128]
InApril2021,TwitterannouncedthatitwasestablishingitsAfricanheadquartersinGhana.[129][130]
OnMay3,2021,TwitterSpacesreleasedglobally.[131][132]
OnJune5,theNigeriangovernmentissuedanindefinitebanonTwitterusageinthecountryaftertheplatformremovedtweetsmadebytheNigerianPresidentMuhammaduBuhari.[133]Thecompanyclaimedthetweetsviolateditspoliciesagainst"abusivebehavior".Twittercalledtheban"deeplyconcerning".Severalhumanrightsorganizations,includingAmnestyInternational[134]andthelocalSocio-EconomicRightsandAccountabilityProject(SERAP),[135]spokeoutagainstthebanaswell.TheNigeriangovernmentstatedthatthebanwasnotbasedsolelyontheremovalofthetweetsandwasaresultof"alitanyofproblemswiththesocialmediaplatforminNigeria,wheremisinformationandfakenewsspreadthroughithavehadrealworldviolentconsequences".[136]
InJune2021,TwitterannouncedthebetarolloutofitsSuperFollowsfeature.Agroupofuserswillbeallowedtochargefollowersmonthlyforaccesstoextracontent,notavailableintheirregularfeed.ThecompanyalsolaunchedtheTicketedSpacesprograminbeta,apremiumversionofitsaudioroomfeatureSpaces,whichmakesaccesstocertainaudioroomspaid.[137]
TwitterrolledoutchangesintheinterfaceonAugust11,2021.Amongadjustmentsincoloruses,themajorchangewasconvertingtotheirnewChirpfont,designedtoallowleft-alignmentofmostWesternlanguagesastomakebrowsingoftweetseasiertofollow.[138]
AnOctober21,2021,reportbasedona"long-running,massive-scalerandomizedexperiment"thatanalyzed"millionsoftweetssentbetween1Apriland15August2020",foundthatTwitter'smachinelearningalgorithmamplifiedright-leaningpoliticsonpersonalizeduserHometimelines.[139]: 1 [140]ThereportcomparedsevencountrieswithactiveTwitteruserswheredatawasavailable—Germany,Canada,theUnitedKingdom,Japan,France,andSpain—andexaminedTweets"frommajorpoliticalgroupsandpoliticians".[139]: 4 Researchersusedthe2019ChapelHillExpertSurvey(CHESDATA)topositionpartiesonpoliticalideologywithineachcountry.[139]: 4 The"machinelearningalgorithms"—introducedbyTwitterin2016—personalized99%ofusers'feedsbydisplayingTweets—evenolderTweetsandRetweetsfromaccountstheuserhadnotdirectlyfollowed—butthatthealgorithmhad"deemedrelevant"totheusers'pastpreferences.[139]: 4 Twitterrandomlychose1%ofuserswhoseHometimelinesdisplayedcontentinreverse-chronologicalorderfromuserstheydirectlyfollowed.[139]: 2
InJanuary2022,TwitterfinalizedthesaleofMoPubtoAppLovin.ThedealwasfirstannouncedinOctober2021,andthesellingpricewasreportedat$1.05billion.[141]
Leadership
Aschiefexecutiveofficer,Dorseysawthestartupthroughtworoundsofcapitalfundingbytheventurecapitalistswhobackedthecompany.[142]OnOctober16,2008,[143]WilliamstookovertheroleofCEO,andDorseybecamechairmanoftheboard.[144]OnOctober4,2010,WilliamsannouncedthathewassteppingdownasCEO.DickCostolo,formerlyTwitter'schiefoperatingofficer,becameCEO.OnOctober4,2010,Williamsmadeanannouncementsayingthathewillstaywiththecompanyand"becompletelyfocusedonproductstrategy".[145][146]
AccordingtoTheNewYorkTimes,"Mr.DorseyandMr.Costoloforgedacloserelationship"whenWilliamswasaway.[147]AccordingtoPCMagazine,Williamswas"nolongerinvolvedintheday-to-daygoingsonatthecompany".Hewasfocusedondevelopinganewstartup,andbecameamemberofTwitter'sboardofdirectors,andpromisedto"helpinanyway[hecould]".In2011,StonewasstillwithTwitterbutwasworkingwithAOLasan"advisoronvolunteereffortsandphilanthropy".[148]InJanuary2014,StoneannouncedthereleaseofJelly,a'socialQ&Anetworkformobile'.[149]DorseyrejoinedTwitterinMarch2011,asexecutivechairmanfocusingonproductdevelopment.Atthattime,hesplithisschedulewithSquare(whereheisCEO),whoseofficesarewithinwalkingdistanceofTwitter'sinSanFrancisco.[147]
InSeptember2011,boardmembersandinvestorsFredWilsonandBijanSabetresignedfromTwitter'sboardofdirectors.[150]InOctober2012,TwitterannouncedithadhiredformerGoogleexecutiveMattDerellatobecometheirnewdirectorofbusinessagencydevelopment.[151]TwitternamedformerGoldmanSachsexecutiveAnthonyNotoasthecompany'sCFOinJuly2014,withan"annualsalaryof$250,000andone-timerestrictedstockoptionsof1.5millionshares...valuedat$61.5million".[152]OnJune10,2015,TwitterannounceditsCEODickCostolowouldresignonJuly1,2015.[153]NotowassaidtobeconsideredapotentialreplacementforoutgoingCEOCostolo.[154]OnOctober14,2015,formerGooglechiefbusinessofficerOmidKordestanibecameexecutivechairman,replacingDorseywhoremainsCEO.[155]OnJanuary26,2016,LeslieBerland,formerexecutivevicepresidentofglobaladvertising,marketing,anddigitalpartnershipsatAmericanExpress,wasnamedchiefmarketingofficer.[156]InNovember2016,COOAdamBainannouncedhisresignationandCFOAnthonyNototookoverBain'srole.[157][158]Amonthlater,onDecember20,2016,CTOAdamMessingerannouncedthathetoowasleaving.[159][160]
InFebruary2020,itwasreportedthatElliottManagementCorporationhadacquiredastakeinTwitter,withactivistshareholderandRepublicanPartysupporterPaulSingerexpectedtoseektheremovalofDorseyasCEO.[161]Twitteragreedtoappointanewindependentdirectorandtwonewboardmembers,andtoperform$2 billioninsharebuybacks.[162]
OnNovember29,2021,JackDorseysteppeddownasCEO.HewasreplacedbyCTOParagAgrawal.[163][164]
Listofchairmen
JackDorsey(2008–2015)
OmidKordestani(2015–2020)
PatrickPichette(2020–2021)
BretTaylor(2021-present)
ListofCEOs
JackDorsey(2006–2008);firstterm
EvanWilliams(2008–2010)
DickCostolo(2010–2015)
JackDorsey(2015–2021);secondterm
ParagAgrawal(2021–present)
Appearanceandfeatures
Mainarticle:ListofTwitterfeatures
IthasbeensuggestedthatTwitterBluebemergedintothissection.(Discuss)ProposedsinceDecember2021.
Tweets
TheTwitteraccountpageforWikipedia,demonstratingtheaccount-customizedtimelineviewwhichshowstweetsinreversechronologicalorder
Tweetsarepubliclyvisiblebydefault,butsenderscanrestrictmessagedeliverytoonlytheirfollowers.Userscanmuteuserstheydonotwishtointeractwith,blockaccountsfromviewingtheirtweetsandremoveaccountsfromtheirfollowerslist.[165][166][167]UserscantweetviatheTwitterwebsite,compatibleexternalapplications(suchasforsmartphones),orbyShortMessageService(SMS)availableincertaincountries.[168]Usersmaysubscribetootherusers'tweets—thisisknownas"following"andsubscribersareknownas"followers"[169]or"tweeps",aportmanteauofTwitterandpeeps.[170]Individualtweetscanbeforwardedbyotheruserstotheirownfeed,aprocessknownasa"retweet".In2015,Twitterlaunched"quotetweet"(originallycalled"retweetwithcomment"),[171]afeaturethatallowsuserstoaddacommenttotheirretweet,nestingonetweetintheother.[172]Userscanalso"like"(formerly"favorite")individualtweets.[173]
Thecountersfor"likes","retweets",andrepliesappearnexttotherespectivebuttonsintimelinessuchasonprofilepagesandsearchresults.Countersforlikesandretweetsexistonatweet'sstandalonepagetoo.SinceSeptember2020,quotetweets,formerlyknownas"retweetwithcomment",haveanowncounterontheirtweetpage.[171]Untilthelegacydesktopfrontendthatwasdiscontinuedin2020,arowwithminiatureprofilepicturesofuptotenlikingorretweetinguserswasdisplayed(earliestdocumentedimplementationinDecember2011overhaul),aswellasatweetreplycounternexttotheaccordingbuttononatweet'spage.[174][175]
Twitterallowsuserstoupdatetheirprofileviatheirmobilephoneeitherbytextmessagingorbyappsreleasedforcertainsmartphonesandtablets.[176]Twitterhasbeencomparedtoaweb-basedInternetRelayChat(IRC)client.[177]Ina2009Timemagazineessay,technologyauthorStevenJohnsondescribedthebasicmechanicsofTwitteras"remarkablysimple":
Asasocialnetwork,Twitterrevolvesaroundtheprincipleoffollowers.WhenyouchoosetofollowanotherTwitteruser,thatuser'stweetsappearinreversechronologicalorderonyourmainTwitterpage.Ifyoufollow20people,you'llseeamixoftweetsscrollingdownthepage:breakfast-cerealupdates,interestingnewlinks,musicrecommendations,evenmusingsonthefutureofeducation.[178]
AccordingtoresearchpublishedinApril2014,around44%ofuseraccountshavenevertweeted.[179]
ThefirsttweetwaspostedbyJackDorsey(creator)at12:50PMPSTonMarch21,2006,andread"justsettingupmytwttr".[180]In2009,thefirsttweetwassentfromspace.USastronautsNicolaStottandJeffWilliamstookpartinalive'tweetup'fromtheInternationalSpaceStationwitharound35membersofthepublicattheNASAHeadquartersinWashington,D.C.[181]
InMarch2021,JackDorseylistedhisfirsttweetforsale.Thehighestbidforthetweet,$2.5million,camefromaMalaysianbusinessman,SinaEstavi.Alongwiththemetadataoftheoriginaltweet,thebuyerwastoreceiveacertificatethatwasdigitallysignedandverifiedbyDorsey.[182]
Content
ContentoftweetsaccordingtoPearAnalytics News(3.6%) Spam(3.8%) Self-promotion(5.9%) Pointlessbabble(40.1%) Conversational(37.6%) Pass-alongvalue(8.7%)
SanAntonio-basedmarket-researchfirmPearAnalyticsanalyzed2,000tweets(originatingfromtheUnitedStatesandinEnglish)overatwo-weekperiodinAugust2009from11:00amto5:00pm(CST)andseparatedthemintosixcategories.[183]Pointlessbabblemadeup40%,with38%beingconversational.Pass-alongvaluehad9%,self-promotion6%withspamandnewseachmaking4%.
DespiteJackDorsey'sownopencontentionthatamessageonTwitteris"ashortburstofinconsequentialinformation",socialnetworkingresearcherdanahboydrespondedtothePearAnalyticssurveybyarguingthatwhatthePearresearcherslabeled"pointlessbabble"isbettercharacterizedas"socialgrooming"or"peripheralawareness"(whichshejustifiesaspersons"want[ing]toknowwhatthepeoplearoundthemarethinkinganddoingandfeeling,evenwhenco-presenceisn'tviable").[184]Similarly,asurveyofTwitterusersfoundthatamorespecificsocialroleofpassingalongmessagesthatincludeahyperlinkisanexpectationofreciprocallinkingbyfollowers.[185]
Format
Hashtags,usernames,retweetsandreplies
"Twitterhashtag"redirectshere.Formoreabouthashtags,seeHashtag.
Furtherinformation:Mention(blogging)§ @(Atsign)
Userscangrouppoststogetherbytopicortypebyuseofhashtags–wordsorphrasesprefixedwitha"#"sign.Similarly,the"@"signfollowedbyausernameisusedformentioningorreplyingtootherusers.[186]
In2014,inanticipationfortheFIFAWorldCup,Twitterintroducedhashflags,specialhashtagsthatautomaticallygenerateacustomemojinexttothemforacertainperiodoftime,followingthesuccessofasimilarcampaignduringthe2010WorldCup.[187]HashflagsmaybegeneratedbyTwitterthemselves(suchastoraiseawarenessforsocialissues)[188]orbepurchasedbycorporations(suchastopromoteproductsandevents).[189]
TorepostamessagefromanotherTwitteruserandshareitwithone'sownfollowers,ausercanclicktheretweetbuttonwithintheTweet.Userscanreplyotheraccounts'replies.SinceNovember2019,userscanhiderepliestotheirmessages.SinceMay2020,userscanselectwhocanreplyeachoftheirtweetsbeforesendingthem:anyone,accountswhofollowtheposter,specificaccounts,andnone.ThisabilitywasupgradedinJuly2021tomakethefeatureretroactivelyapplicabletotweetsaftertheyhavebeensentout.[190][191]
TwitterLists
Inlate2009,the"TwitterLists"featurewasadded,makingitpossibleforuserstofollowadhoclistsofauthorsinsteadofindividualauthors.[169][192]
UsingSMS
ThroughSMS,userscancommunicatewithTwitterthroughfivegatewaynumbers:shortcodesfortheUnitedStates,Canada,India,NewZealand,andanIsleofMan-basednumberforinternationaluse.ThereisalsoashortcodeintheUnitedKingdomwhichisonlyaccessibletothoseontheVodafone,O2[193]andOrange[194]networks.InIndia,sinceTwitteronlysupportstweetsfromBhartiAirtel,[195]analternativeplatformcalledsmsTweet[196]wassetupbyausertoworkonallnetworks.[197]AsimilarplatformcalledGladlyCastexistsformobilephoneusersinSingaporeandMalaysia.[198]
Thetweetsweresettoalargelyconstrictive140-characterlimitforcompatibilitywithSMSmessaging,introducingtheshorthandnotationandslangcommonlyusedinSMSmessages.The140-characterlimitalsoincreasedtheusageofURLshorteningservicessuchasbit.ly,goo.gl,tinyurl.com,tr.im,andothercontent-hostingservicessuchasTwitPic,memozu.comandNotePubtoaccommodatemultimediacontentandtextlongerthan140characters.SinceJune2011,Twitterhasuseditsownt.codomainforautomaticshorteningofallURLspostedonitssite,makingotherlinkshortenersunnecessaryforstayingwithinTwitter's140characterlimit.[199][200]
InAugust2019,JackDorsey'saccountwashackedbyusingTwitter'sSMStotweetfeaturetosendcrudemessages.Dayslater,theabilitytosendatweetviaSMSwastemporarilyturnedoff.[201]
InApril2020,TwitterdiscontinuedtheabilitytoreceiveSMSmessagescontainingthetextofnewtweetsinmostcountries.[202][203]
Characterlimits
In2016,Twitterannouncedthatmediasuchasphotos,videos,andtheperson'shandle,wouldnotcountagainstthealreadyconstrictive140characterlimit.AuserphotopostusedtocountforalargechunkofaTweet,about24characters.[204]Attachmentsandlinkswouldalsonolongerbepartofthecharacterlimit.[205]
OnMarch29,2016,Twitterintroducedtheabilitytoaddacaptionofupto480characterstoeachimageattachedtoatweet.[206][207]ThiscaptioncanbeaccessedbyscreenreadingsoftwareorbyhoveringthemouseaboveapictureinsideTweetDeck.
SinceMarch30,2017,theTwitterhandlesareoutsidethetweetitself,thereforetheynolongercounttowardsthecharacterlimit.[208]OnlynewTwitterhandlesaddedtotheconversationcounttowardsthelimit.
In2017,Twitterdoubledtheirhistorical140-character-limitationto280.[209]Underthenewlimit,glyphsarecountedasavariablenumberofcharacters,dependinguponthescripttheyarefrom:mostEuropeanlettersandpunctuationformscountasonecharacter,whileeachCJKglyphcountsastwosothatonly140suchglyphscanbeusedinatweet.[209]
URLshortener
t.coisaURLshorteningservicecreatedbyTwitter.[199]ItisonlyavailableforlinkspostedtoTwitterandnotavailableforgeneraluse.[199]AlllinkspostedtoTwitteruseat.cowrapper.[210]Twitterhopesthattheservicewillbeabletoprotectusersfrommalicioussites,[199]andwilluseittotrackclicksonlinkswithintweets.[199][211]
HavingusedtheservicesofthirdpartiesTinyURLandbit.ly,[212]TwitterbeganexperimentingwithitsownURLshorteningserviceforprivatemessagesinMarch2010usingthetwt.tldomain,[210]beforeitpurchasedthet.codomain.Theservicewastestedonthemainsiteusingtheaccounts@TwitterAPI,@rsarverand@raffi.[210]OnSeptember2,2010,anemailfromTwittertouserssaidtheywouldbeexpandingtheroll-outoftheservicetousers.OnJune7,2011,Twitterannouncedthatitwasrollingoutthefeature.[200]
Trendingtopics
Mainarticle:Twittertrends
CountriesandcitieswithlocaltrendingtopicsinTwitter
Aword,phrase,ortopicthatismentionedatagreaterratethanothersissaidtobea"trendingtopic".Trendingtopicsbecomepopulareitherthroughaconcertedeffortbyusersorbecauseofaneventthatpromptspeopletotalkaboutaspecifictopic.[213]ThesetopicshelpTwitterandtheiruserstounderstandwhatishappeningintheworldandwhatpeople'sopinionsareaboutit.[214]
Trendingtopicsaresometimestheresultofconcertedeffortsandmanipulationsbyfansofcertaincelebritiesorculturalphenomena,particularlymusicianslikeLadyGaga(knownasLittleMonsters),JustinBieber(Beliebers),Rihanna(RihNavy)andOneDirection(Directioners),andnovelseriesTwilight(Twihards)andHarryPotter(Potterheads).Twitterhasalteredthetrendalgorithminthepasttopreventmanipulationofthistypewithlimitedsuccess.[215]
TheTwitterwebinterfacedisplaysalistoftrendingtopicsonasidebaronthehomepage,alongwithsponsoredcontent(seeimage).
Twitteroftencensorstrendinghashtagsthatareclaimedtobeabusiveoroffensive.Twittercensoredthe#Thatsafrican[216]and#thingsdarkiessayhashtagsafteruserscomplainedthattheyfoundthehashtagsoffensive.[217]ThereareallegationsthatTwitterremoved#NaMOinHydfromthetrendinglistandaddedanIndianNationalCongress-sponsoredhashtag.[218]PresidentDonaldTrumpprostetedtrendscallingthem"unfair,disgusting,illegal,ridiculous"claimingtheonesthatarebadabouthimareblownup.[219][220][221]
Moments
InOctober2015,Twitterintroduced"Moments"—afeaturethatallowsuserstocuratetweetsfromotherusersintoalargercollection.Twitterinitiallyintendedthefeaturetobeusedbyitsin-houseeditorialteamandotherpartners;theypopulatedadedicatedtabinTwitter'sapps,chroniclingnewsheadlines,sportingevents,andothercontent.[222][223]InSeptember2016,creationofmomentsbecameavailabletoallTwitterusers.[224]
Addingandfollowingcontent
Therearenumeroustoolsforaddingcontent,monitoringcontentandconversationsincludingTwitter'sownTweetDeck,Salesforce.com,HootSuite,andTwitterfeed.com.Asof2009[update],fewerthanhalfoftweetspostedwerepostedusingthewebuserinterfacewithmostusersusingthird-partyapplications(basedonananalysisof500 milliontweetsbySysomos).[225]
Verifiedaccounts
Mainarticle:Twitterverification
TheofficialTwitterprofileofTwitter,Inc.Thebluecheckmarktotherightoftheprofilenameindicatesthatitisaverifiedaccount.
InJune2009,afterbeingcriticizedbyKanyeWestandsuedbyTonyLaRussaoverunauthorizedaccountsrunbyimpersonators,thecompanylaunchedtheir"VerifiedAccounts"program.[226][227]Twitterstatedthatanaccountwitha"bluetick"verificationbadgeindicates"we'vebeenincontactwiththepersonorentitytheaccountisrepresentingandverifiedthatitisapproved".[228]InJuly2016,Twitterannouncedapublicapplicationprocesstograntverifiedstatustoanaccount"ifitisdeterminedtobeofpublicinterest"andthatverification"doesnotimplyanendorsement".[229][230][231]Verifiedstatusallowsaccesstosomefeaturesunavailabletootherusers,suchasonlyseeingmentionsfromotherverifiedaccounts.[232]
InNovember2020,Twitterannouncedarelaunchofitsverificationsystemin2021.Accordingtothenewpolicy,Twitterverifiessixdifferenttypesofaccounts;forthreeofthem(companies,brands,andinfluentialindividualslikeactivists),theexistenceofaWikipediapagewillbeonecriterionforshowingthattheaccounthas"OffTwitterNotability".[233]Twitterstatesthatitwillre-openpublicverificationapplicationsatsomepointin"early2021".[234]
Mobile
ThemobileversionofTwitter[235]
TwitterhasmobileappsforiPhone,iPad,Android,Windows10,WindowsPhone,BlackBerry,andNokiaS40.[236]UserscanalsotweetbysendingSMS.[237]InApril2017,TwitterintroducedTwitterLite,aprogressivewebappdesignedforregionswithunreliableandslowInternetconnections,withasizeoflessthanonemegabyte,designedfordeviceswithlimitedstoragecapacity.[238][239]
ThishasbeenreleasedincountrieswithslowinternetconnectionsuchasthePhilippines.[240]
TwitterLitehasevolvedintothemainTwitterwebinterface,seesection"interface".[citationneeded]
Third-partyapplications
Formanyyears,Twitterhaslimitedtheuseofthird-partyapplicationsaccessingtheservicebyimplementinga100,000userlimitperapplication.[241]SinceAugust2010,third-partyTwitterapplicationshavebeenrequiredtouseOAuth,anauthenticationmethodthatdoesnotrequireuserstoentertheirpasswordintotheauthenticatingapplication.Thiswasdonetoincreasesecurityandimprovetheuserexperience.[242]
Relatedheadlinesfeature
Thisfeatureaddswebsitestothebottomofatweet'spermalinkpage.Ifawebsiteembeddedatweetontooneoftheirstories,thetweetwillshowthewebsitesthatmentionedthetweet.ThisfeaturewasaddedontoTwittersoiftheviewerdoesnotunderstandwhatthetweetmeans,theycanclickonthesitestoreadmoreaboutwhatthepersonistalkingabout.[243]
Polls
In2015,Twitterbegantorollouttheabilitytoattachpollquestionstotweets.Pollsareopenforupto7days,andvotersarenotpersonallyidentified.[244]
Initially,pollscouldhaveonlytwooptionswithamaximumoftwentycharactersperoption.Later[when?],theabilitytoaddfouroptionswithupto25charactersperoption,wasadded.
Integratedphoto-sharingservice
OnJune1,2011,Twitterannounceditsownintegratedphoto-sharingservicethatenablesuserstouploadaphotoandattachittoaTweetrightfromTwitter.com.[245]UsersnowalsohavetheabilitytoaddpicturestoTwitter'ssearchbyaddinghashtagstothetweet.[246]TwitteralsoplanstoprovidephotogalleriesdesignedtogatherandsyndicateallphotosthatauserhasuploadedonTwitterandthird-partyservicessuchasTwitPic.[246]
Streamingvideo
In2016,Twitterbegantoplacealargerfocusonlivestreamingvideoprogramming,hostingvariouseventsincludingstreamsoftheRepublicanandDemocraticconventionsduringtheU.S.presidentialcampaignaspartofapartnershipwithCBSNews,[247]DreamhackandESLeSportsevents,[248]andwinningabidfornon-exclusivestreamingrightstotenNFLThursdayNightFootballgamesinthe2016season.[248][249]
DuringaneventinNewYorkinMay2017,Twitterannouncedthatitplannedtoconstructa24-hourstreamingvideochannelhostedwithintheservice,featuringcontentfromvariouspartners.[248][250]CEOJackDorseystatedthatthedigitalvideostrategywaspartofagoalforTwittertobe"thefirstplacethatanyonehearsofanythinggoingonthatmatterstothem";asofthefirstquarterof2017,Twitterhadover200contentpartners,whostreamedover800hoursofvideoover450events.[251]
Twitterannouncedanumberofnewandexpandedpartnershipsforitsstreamingvideoservicesattheevent,includingBloomberg,BuzzFeed,Cheddar(OpeningBellandClosingBellshows;thelatterwasintroducedinOctober2016)IMGFashion(coverageoffashionevents),LiveNationEntertainment(streamingconcertevents),MajorLeagueBaseball(weeklyonlinegamestream,plusaweeklyprogramwithlivelook-insandcoverageoftrendingstories),MTVandBET(redcarpetcoveragefortheirMTVVideoMusicAwards,MTVMovie&TVAwards,andBETAwards),NFLNetwork(theMonday-ThursdaynewsprogramNFLBlitzLive,andSundayFantasyGameday),[252][253]thePGATour(PGATourLivecoverageofearlytournamentroundsprecedingtelevisioncoverage),[254]ThePlayers'Tribune,BenSilvermanandHowardT.Owens'Propagate(dailyentertainmentshow#WhatsHappening),TheVerge(weeklytechnologyshowCircuitBreaker:TheVerge'sGadgetShow),Stadium(anewdigitalsportsnetworkbeingformedbySilverChaliceandSinclairBroadcastGroup)[255][256][257]andtheWNBA(weeklygame).[251]
Accountarchival
Twitterhasofferedtwodifferentmethods[clarify]ofarchivingone'sownTwitteraccountdata.Thosemethodshavetheirindividualbenefitsanddisadvantages.AsofSeptember2019,onlythelatterarchivalmethodisavailable.[citationneeded]
BrowsablelegacyTwitterarchiveformat
InDecember2012,Twitterintroduceda"Tweetarchival"feature,whichcreatedaZIPfilethatcontainsanoffline-browsablearchiveofalltweets.[258]Thoseexportedtweetscouldbebrowsedandsearchedofflinebyusingthebundleduser-interfaceaccessiblethroughanInternetbrowser,whichusedclient-side,JavaScript-poweredpagination.[259]TheuserinterfaceofthetweetarchivebrowserhadadesignsimilartoTwitter's2010–2014desktopuserinterface,evenuntilthefeature'sremoval.Thetweettextcontents,ID's,timedataandsourcelabelsarelocatedinthefilecalled"tweets.csv".Itwaspossibletorequestatleastonearchiveperday[verificationneeded].Theabilitytoexportthistypeoftweetarchive,whichneverexistedonthenewlayout,hasbeenremovedentirelyinAugust2019[whenexactly?],afterco-existingwiththenew2018dataarchivalmethod.
EvenwhenaccessingthelegacyTwitterdesktopwebsitelayoutusingtheuser-agentofanolderbrowserversion,theoptionhasdisappearedfromtheaccountsettings.
Spaces
TwitterSpacesisasocialaudiofeaturethatenablesuserstohostorparticipateinalive-audiovirtualenvironmentcalledspaceforconversation.Spacescanaccommodateanunlimitednumberoflisteners.Amaximumof13people(1host,2co-hostsand10speakers)areallowedonstage.Thefeaturewasinitiallylimitedtouserswithatleast600followers.SinceOctober21,2021,anyTwitterusercancreateaSpacefromtheAndroidoriOSapp.[260]
Fleets
InMarch2020,Twitterbegantotestastoriesfeatureknownas"fleets"insomemarkets,[261][262]whichofficiallylaunchedonNovember17,2020.[263][264]Similarlytoequivalentfeatures,fleetscancontaintextandmedia,areonlyaccessiblefor24hoursaftertheyareposted,andareaccessedwithintheTwitterappviaanareaabovethetimeline.[261]
InJune2021,Twitterannounceditwouldstartimplementingadvertisingintofleets,integratingfull-screenadsamonguser-createdcontent.[265]OnJuly14,2021,TwitterstatedthatitwouldremoveFleetsbyAugust3.Twitterhadintendedforfleetstoencouragemoreuserstotweetregularly,ratherthansimplyconsumeotherfolks'tweets,butinsteadfleetsweregenerallyusedbyuserswhoalreadytweetedalot.ThecompanystatedthattheirspotatthetopofthescreenwouldnowbeoccupiedbycurrentlyactiveSpacesfromtheuser'sfeed.[266]
TwitterBlue
OnJune3,2021,TwitterannouncedaserviceknownasTwitterBlue,whichprovidesfeaturesexclusivetothosewhoaresubscriberstotheTwitterBlueservice.Theyinclude:
UndoTweet,whichallowsuserstowithdrawatweetwithinashorttimeframebeforeitisposted.[267]
Bookmarks,whichallowsuserstosaveindividualtweetsintofolders.[267]
Readermode,whichconvertsthreadsoftweetsintoanarticle-likeview.[267]
AselectionofcolorthemesandappiconsfortheTwittermobileapp.[267]
Dedicatedcustomersupport.[267]
NFTprofilepictures,addedonJanuary20,2022.[268]
TheservicewasinitiallyreleasedinAustraliaandCanada.[267]OnNovember9,2021,TwitterBluewaslaunchedforUScustomers.[269]
TipJar
InMay2021,TwitterbegantestingaTipJarfeatureonitsiOSandAndroidclients.Thefeatureallowsuserstosendmonetarytipstocertainaccounts,providingafinancialincentiveforcontentcreatorsontheplatform.TheTipJarisoptionalanduserscanchoosewhetherornottoenabletipsfortheiraccount.Thedaythefeaturewaslaunched,auserdiscoveredthatsendingatipthroughPayPalwouldrevealthesender'saddresstotherecipient.[270]
OnSeptember23,2021,Twitterannouncedthatitwillallowuserstotipusersonthesocialnetworkwithbitcoin.ThefeaturewillbeavailableforiOSusers.Previously,userscouldtipwithfiatcurrencyusingservicessuchasSquare'sCashappandPayPal'sVenmo.TwitterwillintegratetheStrikebitcoinlightningwalletservice.Itwasnotedthatatthiscurrenttime,Twitterwillnottakeacutofanymoneysentthroughthetipsfeature.[271]
TheShopModule
InJuly2021,TwitterlaunchedatestofTheShopModule,ashoppingextensionthatdirectscustomerstoabrand'sproductsfromitsofficialTwitteraccount.ThefeatureinitiallylaunchedforUS-basedusersonlyandonlyoniOS.[272]
SafetyMode
OnSeptember1,2021,TwitterbegantorolloutSafetyMode,allowinguserstoreducedisruptiveinteractions.Therolloutbeganwithasmallbeta-feedbackgrouponiOS,Android,andTwitter'swebapplication.[273]
Thefunctionalityallowsuserstotemporarilyblockaccountsforsevendayswhenpotentiallyharmfullanguageisdetected.IfauserhasSafetyModeenabled,authorsoftweetsthatareidentifiedbyTwitter'stechnologyasbeingharmfulorexercisinguninvitedbehaviorwillbetemporarilyunabletofollowtheaccount,senddirectmessages,orseetweetsfromtheuserwiththeenabledfunctionalityduringthetemporaryblockperiod.JarrodDoherty,seniorproductmanageratTwitter,statedthatthetechnologyinplacewithinSafetymodeassessesexistingrelationshipstopreventblockingaccountsthattheuserfrequentlyinteractswith.
TwitterfirstrevealedSafetyModeinFebruary2021withintheAnalystDayslidedeck.[274]
LiveShopping
OnNovember22,2021,Twitterannouncedliveshopping[275]featureonitsplatform.WalmartwillbethefirstretailertotestTwitter’snewlivestreamshoppingplatform.[276]Thecompanystatedthatitispartoftheircontinuingeffortstobringengagingexperiencestocustomersthatallowthemtoshopseamlesslywhilealsobeingentertained.
Shops
Twitterallowcompaniestoshowcaseupto50productsforsaleontheirprofiles,aspartofnewfeaturetesting.ShopswillhelpTwittertogainapieceofthe$45billionUSmarketforsocialcommerce.[277]
Usage
Mainarticle:Twitterusage
Dailyuserestimatesvaryasthecompanydoesnotpublishstatisticsonactiveaccounts.AFebruary2009Compete.comblogentryrankedTwitterasthethirdmostusedsocialnetworkbasedontheircountof6 millionuniquemonthlyvisitorsand55 millionmonthlyvisits.[43]In2009,Twitterhadamonthlyuserretentionrateoffortypercent.[278]Twitterhadannualgrowthof1,382percent,increasingfrom475,000uniquevisitorsinFebruary2008to7 millioninFebruary2009.Twitter'sannualgrowthratedecreasedfrom7.8percentin2015to3.4percentin2017.[279]AnApril2017astatista.comblogentryrankedTwitterasthetenthmostusedsocialnetworkbasedontheircountof319 millionmonthlyvisitors.[280]Itsglobaluserbasein2017was328 million.[281]AsperAugust2018,Twitterlight(datasavingapp)isavailablein45countries.[282]
Demographics
Thissectionneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.(September2019)
Seealso:BlackTwitter
Twitter.comTop5GlobalMarketsbyReach(%)[283][284]
Country
Fraction
Indonesia
Jun. 2010
20.8%
Dec. 2010
19.0%
Brazil
Jun. 2010
20.5%
Dec. 2010
21.8%
Venezuela
Jun. 2010
19.0%
Dec. 2010
21.1%
Netherlands
Jun. 2010
17.7%
Dec. 2010
22.3%
Japan
Jun. 2010
16.8%
Dec. 2010
20.0%
Note:Visitorage>15,homeandworklocations.ExcludesvisitationfrompubliccomputerssuchasInternetcafesoraccessfrommobilephonesorPDAs.
In2009,TwitterwasmainlyusedbyolderadultswhomightnothaveusedothersocialsitesbeforeTwitter,saidJeremiahOwyang,anindustryanalyststudyingsocialmedia."Adultsarejustcatchinguptowhatteenshavebeendoingforyears",hesaid.[285]AccordingtocomScoreonly11%ofTwitter'susersareaged12to17.[285]comScoreattributedthistoTwitter's"earlyadopterperiod"whenthesocialnetworkfirstgainedpopularityinbusinesssettingsandnewsoutletsattractingprimarilyolderusers.However,comScorealsostatedin2009thatTwitterhadbegunto"filtermoreintothemainstream",and"alongwithitcameacultureofcelebrityasShaq,BritneySpearsandAshtonKutcherjoinedtheranksoftheTwitterati".[286]
AccordingtoastudybySysomosinJune2009,womenmakeupaslightlylargerTwitterdemographicthanmen—53%over47%.Italsostatedthat5%ofusersaccountedfor75%ofallactivityandthatNewYorkCityhasmoreTwitterusersthanothercities.[287]
AccordingtoQuancast,27millionpeopleintheUSusedTwitterasofSeptember3,2009;63%ofTwitterusersareunder35yearsold;60%ofTwitterusersareCaucasian,butahigherthanaverage(comparedtootherInternetproperties)areAfricanAmerican/black(16%)andHispanic(11%);58%ofTwitterusershaveatotalhouseholdincomeofatleastUS$60,000.[288]TheprevalenceofAfricanAmericanTwitterusageandinmanypopularhashtagshasbeenthesubjectofresearchstudies.[289][290]
OnSeptember7,2011,Twitterannouncedthatithad100 millionactiveuserslogginginatleastonceamonthand50 millionactiveuserseveryday.[291]
In2012,thecountrywiththemostactiveusersonTwitterwastheUnitedStates.[292]A2016PewresearchpollfoundthatTwitterisusedby24%ofallonlineUSadults.Itwasequallypopularwithmenandwomen(24%and25%ofonlineAmericansrespectively),butmorepopularwithyounger(36%of18–29yearolds)generations.[293]
InanarticlepublishedonJanuary6,2012,TwitterwasconfirmedtobethebiggestsocialmedianetworkinJapan,withFacebookfollowingcloselyinsecond.ComScoreconfirmedthis,statingthatJapanwastheonlycountryintheworldwhereTwitterleadsFacebook.[294]
OnMarch31,2014,Twitterannouncedthattherewere255 millionmonthlyactiveusers(MAUs)and198 millionmobileMAUs.[295]In2013,therewereover100 millionusersactivelyusingTwitterdailyandabout500 millionTweetseveryday,[296]withabout29%ofuserscheckingTwittermultipletimesaday.[297]
AsofQ12019[update],Twitterhadmorethan330millionmonthlyactiveusers.ThemajorityofTwitterusersskewtotheAmericanpoliticalleft.[298][299][11]
A2019surveyconductedbythePewFoundationfoundthatTwitterusersaremorelikelythanthegeneralpublictohavebothacollegedegreeandhigherincomethantheaverageU.S.adult.Usersarealsothreetimesaslikelytobeyoungerthan50yearsold,withthemedianageofadultU.S.usersbeing40yearsold.Thesurveyfoundthat10%ofuserswhoaremostactiveonTwitterareresponsiblefor80%ofalltweets,focusingmainlyonthetopicsofpoliticsandwomen.[300]
Levelsofuse
About22%ofAmericanssaytheyhaveeverusedTwitter,accordingtoa2019PewResearchCentersurvey.[301]NotinghowdemographicsofTwitterusersdifferfromtheaverageAmericans,commentatorshavecautionedagainstmedianarrativesthattreatTwitterasrepresentativeofthepopulation,[302]addingthatonly10%ofusersTweetactively,andthat90%ofTwitterusershaveTweetednomorethantwice.In2016,shareholderssuedTwitter,allegingit"artificiallyinflateditsstockpricebymisleadingthemaboutuserengagement."ThecompanyannouncedonSeptember20,2021,thatitwouldpay$809.5milliontosettlethisclass-actionlawsuit.[303]
Branding
TheTwitterlogofromSeptember14,2010,toJune5,2012,featuringthesilhouetteversionof"LarrytheBird"
Twitterhasbecomeinternationallyidentifiablebyitssignaturebirdlogo,ortheTwitterBird.Theoriginallogo,whichwassimplythewordTwitter,wasinusefromitslaunchinMarch2006.ItwasaccompaniedbyanimageofabirdwhichwaslaterdiscoveredtobeapieceofclipartcreatedbytheBritishgraphicdesignerSimonOxley.[304]AnewlogohadtoberedesignedbyfounderBizStonewithhelpfromdesignerPhilipPascuzzo,whichresultedinamorecartoon-likebirdin2009.Thisversionhadbeennamed"LarrytheBird"afterLarryBirdoftheNBA'sBostonCelticsfame.[304][305]
Withinayear,theLarrytheBirdlogounderwentaredesignbyStoneandPascuzzotoeliminatethecartoonfeatures,leavingasolidsilhouetteofLarrytheBirdthatwasusedfrom2010through2012.[304]In2012,DouglasBowmancreatedafurthersimplifiedversionofLarrytheBird,keepingthesolidsilhouettebutmakingitmoresimilartoamountainbluebird.[306]Thisnewlogowascalledsimplythe"TwitterBird"andhasbeenusedasthecompany'sbrandingsince.[304][307]
Finances
Forthefiscalyear2017,TwitterreportedlossesofUS$108 million,withanannualrevenueof$2.443 billion,adecreaseof3.9%overthepreviousfiscalcycle.Twitter'ssharestradedatover$17pershare,anditsmarketcapitalizationwasvaluedatoverUS$25.6 billioninOctober2018.
Year
Revenueinmil.US$
Netincomeinmil.US$
Totalassetsinmil.US$
Employees
2010[308]
28
−67
0
N/A
2011[308]
106
−164
721
N/A
2012[308]
317
−79
832
2,000
2013[308]
665
−645
3,366
2,712
2014[309]
1,403
−578
5,583
3,638
2015[310]
2,218
−521
6,442
3,898
2016[311]
2,530
−457
6,870
3,583
2017[312]
2,443
−108
7,412
3,372
2018[313]
3,042
1,206
10,163
3,900
2019[314]
3,459
1,466
12,703
4,900
2020[3]
3,716
1,136
13,379
Over5,500
Funding
Twitter'sSanFranciscoheadquarterslocatedat1355MarketStreet
TwitterraisedoverUS$57 millionfromventurecapitalistgrowthfunding,althoughexactfiguresarenotpubliclydisclosed.Twitter'sfirstAroundoffundingwasforanundisclosedamountthatisrumoredtohavebeenbetweenUS$1 millionandUS$5 million.[315]ItssecondBroundoffundingin2008wasforUS$22 million[316]anditsthirdCroundoffundingin2009wasforUS$35 millionfromInstitutionalVenturePartnersandBenchmarkCapitalalongwithanundisclosedamountfromotherinvestorsincludingUnionSquareVentures,SparkCapital,andInsightVenturePartners.[315]TwitterisbackedbyUnionSquareVentures,DigitalGarage,SparkCapital,andBezosExpeditions.[142]
InMay2008,TheIndustryStandardremarkedthatTwitter'slong-termviabilityislimitedbyalackofrevenue.[317]TwitterboardmemberToddChaffeeforecastthatthecompanycouldprofitfrome-commerce,notingthatusersmaywanttobuyitemsdirectlyfromTwittersinceitalreadyprovidesproductrecommendationsandpromotions.[318]
ByMarch2009,communicationsconsultantBillDouglasspredictedinaninterviewthatTwitterwouldbeworth$1 billionwithinsixmonths,[319]whichcametopasswhenthecompanyclosedafinancingroundvaluingitat$1 billioninSeptemberofthatyear.[320]
ThecompanyraisedUS$200 millioninnewventurecapitalinDecember2010,atavaluationofapproximatelyUS$3.7 billion.[321]InMarch2011,35,000TwittersharessoldforUS$34.50eachonSharespost,animpliedvaluationofUS$7.8 billion.[322]InAugust2010Twitterannounceda"significant"investmentledbyDigitalSkyTechnologiesthat,atUS$800 million,wasreportedtobethelargestventureroundinhistory.[323]
InDecember2011,theSaudiprinceAlwaleedbinTalalinvestedUS$300 millioninTwitter.ThecompanywasvaluedatUS$8.4 billionatthetime.[324]In2016,TwitterwasvaluedbyForbesatUS$15.7 billion.[325]
Revenuesources
InJuly2009,someofTwitter'srevenueandusergrowthdocumentswerepublishedonTechCrunchafterbeingillegallyobtainedbyHackerCroll.Thedocumentsprojected2009revenuesofUS$400,000inthethirdquarterandUS$4 millioninthefourthquarteralongwith25 millionusersbytheendoftheyear.Theprojectionsfortheendof2013wereUS$1.54 billioninrevenue,US$111 millioninnetearnings,andonebillionusers.[326]NoinformationabouthowTwitterplannedtoachievethosenumberswaspublished.Inresponse,Twitterco-founderBizStonepublishedablogpostsuggestingthepossibilityoflegalactionagainstthehacker.[327]
OnApril13,2010,Twitterannouncedplanstoofferpaidadvertisingforcompaniesthatwouldbeabletopurchase"promotedtweets"toappearinselectivesearchresultsontheTwitterwebsite,similartoGoogleAdwords'advertisingmodel.AsofApril13,Twitterannouncedithadalreadysignedupanumberofcompanieswishingtoadvertise,includingSonyPictures,RedBull,BestBuy,andStarbucks.[328][329]
ThecompanygeneratedUS$45 millioninannualrevenuein2010,afterbeginningsalesmidwaythroughthatyear;thecompanyoperatedatalossthroughmostof2010.[321]
Users'photoscangenerateroyalty-freerevenueforTwitter,andanagreementwithWorldEntertainmentNewsNetwork(WENN)wasannouncedinMay2011.[330]InJune2011,Twitterannouncedthatitwouldoffersmallbusinessesaself-serviceadvertisingsystem.[331]TwittergeneratedUS$139.5 millioninadvertisingsalesduring2011.
Theself-serviceadvertisingplatformwaslaunchedinMarch2012toAmericanExpresscardmembersandmerchantsintheU.S.onaninvite-onlybasis.Twitterlaterreportedthatnumeroussmallbusinessesandpeoplewhousedtheself-servicetoolprovidedfeedbackthatindicatedtheywereimpressedbythefeature.[332]Tocontinuetheiradvertisingcampaign,TwitterannouncedonMarch20,2012,thatpromotedtweetswouldbeintroducedtomobiledevices.[333]InApril2013,TwitterannouncedthatitsTwitterAdsself-serviceplatform,consistingofpromotedtweetsandpromotedaccounts,wasavailabletoallU.S.userswithoutaninvite.[332]
Twitter'sfinancialrevenuestatisticsforthefirstquarterof2014wasreportedasUS$250 million.[295]
OnAugust3,2016,TwitterlaunchedInstantUnlockCard,anewfeaturethatencouragespeopletotweetaboutabrandinordertoearnrewardsandutilizethesocialmedianetwork'sconversationalads.Theformatitselfconsistsofimagesorvideoswithcall-to-actionbuttonsandacustomizablehashtag.[334]
Stocklaunchandtaxissues
Twitter'sSanFranciscoheadquarters,asseenfromacorneronMarketStreet
OnSeptember12,2013,TwitterannouncedthatithadfiledpaperswiththeU.S.SecuritiesandExchangeCommission(SEC)aheadofaplannedstockmarketlisting.[335]Itrevealeditsprospectusinan800-pagefiling.[336]TwitterplannedtoraiseUS$1billionasthebasisforitsstockmarketdebut.[337]Theinitialpublicoffering(IPO)filingstatesthat"200,000,000+monthlyactiveusers"accessTwitterand"500,000,000+tweetsperday"areposted.[34][338]InanOctober15,2013,amendmenttotheirSECS-1filing,[339]TwitterdeclaredthattheywouldlistontheNewYorkStockExchange(NYSE),quashingspeculationthattheirstockwouldtradeontheNASDAQexchange.ThisdecisionwaswidelyviewedtobeareactiontothebotchedinitialpublicofferingofFacebook.[340]OnNovember6,2013,70 millionshares[341]werepricedatUS$26andissuedbyleadunderwriterGoldmanSachs.[342]
OnNovember7,2013,thefirstdayoftradingontheNYSE,Twittersharesopenedat$26.00andclosedatUS$44.90,givingthecompanyavaluationofaroundUS$31 billion.[343]Consequently,executivesandearlyinvestorsmarginallyincreasedtheircapital,includingco-foundersWilliamsandDorseywhoreceivedasumofUS$2.56 billionandUS$1.05 billionrespectively,whileCostolo'spaymentwasUS$345 million.[344]OnFebruary5,2014,Twitterpublisheditsfirstresultsasapubliccompany,showinganetlossof$511 millioninthefourthquarterof2013.[345]OnJanuary5,2016,CEOJackDorseycommentedonareportthatTwitterplannedtoexpanditscharacterlimitto10,000(privatemessagesalreadyhadthelongerlimitasofJuly),requiringuserstoclicktoseeanythingbeyond140characters.HesaidwhileTwitterwould"neverlosethatfeeling"ofspeed,userscoulddomorewiththetext.[346]
InSeptember2016,Twittersharesrose20%afterareportthatithadreceivedtakeoverapproaches.[347]PotentialbuyerswereAlphabet(theparentcompanyofGoogle),[347]Microsoft,[348][349][350]Salesforce.com,[347][351]Verizon,[351]andTheWaltDisneyCompany.[352][353]Twitter'sboardofdirectorswereopentoadeal,whichcouldhavecomebytheendof2016.[347][354]However,nodealwasmade,withreportsinOctoberstatingthatallthepotentialbuyersdroppedoutpartlyduetoconcernsoverabuseandharassmentontheservice.[355][356][357]InJune2017,Twitterrevampeditsdashboardtoimprovethenewuserexperience.[358][359]
InNovember2017,theParadisePapers,asetofconfidentialelectronicdocumentsrelatingtooffshoreinvestment,revealedthatTwitterisamongthecorporationsthatavoidedpayingtaxesbyusingoffshorecompanies.[360]LaterTheNewYorkTimesreportedthatRussian-AmericanbillionaireYuriMilnerhadstrongKremlinbackingforhisinvestmentsinFacebookandTwitter.[361]
Contributions
Inthe2018USelectioncycle,96.15%($295,722)ofdonationsof$200ormorefromTwitteremployeestowardthecategoryof"allfederalcandidates"wenttoDemocrats,versus3.85%($11,850)toRepublicans.[362]
Advertisingbans
InOctober2017,TwitterbannedtheRussianmediaoutletsRTandSputnikfromadvertisingontheirwebsitefollowingtheconclusionsoftheU.S.nationalintelligencereportthepreviousJanuarythatbothSputnikandRThadbeenusedasvehiclesforRussia'sinterferenceinthe2016USpresidentialelection.[363]MariaZakharovafortheRussianforeignministrysaidthebanwasa"grossviolation"bytheUSoffreespeech.[364]
InOctober2019,TwitterannounceditwouldstoprunningpoliticaladsonitsadplatformeffectiveNovember22.Thisresultedfromseveralspuriousclaimsmadebypoliticalads.CompanyCEODorseyclarifiedthatinternetadvertisinghadgreatpowerandwasextremelyeffectiveforcommercialadvertisers,thepowerbringssignificantriskstopoliticswherecrucialdecisionsimpactmillionsoflives.[365]
Usermonetization
InJune2021,thecompanyopenedapplicationsforitspremiumsubscriptionoptionscalledSuperFollows.Thisletseligibleaccountscharge$2.99,$4.99or$9.99permonthtosubscribetotheaccount.[366]Thelaunchonlygeneratedabout$6,000initsfirsttwoweeks.[367]
OnAugust27,2021,TwitterrolledoutTicketedSpaces,whichletTwitterSpaceshostschargebetween$1and$999foraccesstotheirrooms.[368]
Technology
Implementation
Twitterplacesgreatrelianceonopen-sourcesoftware.[369]TheTwitterWebinterfaceusestheRubyonRailsframework,[370]deployedonaperformanceenhancedRubyEnterpriseEditionimplementationofRuby.[371]
IntheearlydaysofTwitter,tweetswerestoredinMySQLdatabasesthatweretemporallysharded(largedatabasesweresplitbasedontimeofposting).Afterthehugevolumeoftweetscomingincausedproblemsreadingfromandwritingtothesedatabases,thecompanydecidedthatthesystemneededre-engineering.[48]
FromSpring2007to2008,themessageswerehandledbyaRubypersistentqueueservercalledStarling.[372]Since2009,implementationhasbeengraduallyreplacedwithsoftwarewritteninScala.[373]TheswitchfromRubytoScalaandtheJVMhasgivenTwitteraperformanceboostfrom200–300requestspersecondperhosttoaround10,000–20,000requestspersecondperhost.Thisboostwasgreaterthanthe10ximprovementthatTwitter'sengineersenvisionedwhenstartingtheswitch.ThecontinueddevelopmentofTwitterhasalsoinvolvedaswitchfrommonolithicdevelopmentofasingleapptoanarchitecturewheredifferentservicesarebuiltindependentlyandjoinedthroughremoteprocedurecalls.[48]
AsofApril6,2011,TwitterengineersconfirmedthattheyhadswitchedawayfromtheirRubyonRailssearchstacktoaJavaservertheycallBlender.[9]
IndividualtweetsareregisteredunderuniqueIDscalledsnowflakes,andgeolocationdataisaddedusing'Rockdove'.TheURLshortenert.cothenchecksforaspamlinkandshortenstheURL.Next,thetweetsarestoredinaMySQLdatabaseusingGizzard,andtheuserreceivesanacknowledgementthatthetweetsweresent.TweetsarethensenttosearchenginesviatheFirehoseAPI.TheprocessismanagedbyFlockDBandtakesanaverageof350ms.[369]
OnAugust16,2013,RaffiKrikorian,Twitter'svicepresidentofplatformengineering,sharedinablogpostthatthecompany'sinfrastructurehandledalmost143,000tweetspersecondduringthatweek,settinganewrecord.KrikorianexplainedthatTwitterachievedthisrecordbyblendingitshomegrownandopensourcetechnologies.[48][374]
Theservice'sapplicationprogramminginterface(API)allowsotherwebservicesandapplicationstointegratewithTwitter.[375]
Interface
TwitterintroducedthefirstmajorredesignofitsuserinterfaceinSeptember2010,adoptingadual-panelayoutwithanavigationbaralongthetopofthescreen,andanincreasedfocusontheinlineembeddingofmultimediacontent.Criticsconsideredtheredesignanattempttoemulatefeaturesandexperiencesfoundinmobileappsandthird-partyTwitterclients.[376][377][378][379]
Thenewlayoutwasrevisedin2011withafocusoncontinuitywiththewebandmobileversions,introducing"Connect"(interactionswithotheruserssuchasreplies)and"Discover"(furtherinformationregardingtrendingtopicsandnewsheadlines)tabs,anupdatedprofiledesign,andmovingallcontenttotherightpane(leavingtheleftpanededicatedtofunctionsandthetrendingtopicslist).[380]InMarch2012,TwitterbecameavailableinArabic,Farsi,HebrewandUrdu,thefirstright-to-leftlanguageversionsofthesite.About13,000volunteershelpedwithtranslatingthemenuoptions.[381]InAugust2012,betasupportforBasque,CzechandGreekwasadded,makingthesiteavailablein33differentlanguages.[382]
InSeptember2012,anewlayoutforprofileswasintroduced,withlarger"covers"thatcouldbecustomizedwithacustomheaderimage,andadisplayoftheuser'srecentphotosposted.[383]The"Discover"tabwasdiscontinuedinApril2015,[384]andwassucceededonthemobileappbyan"Explore"tab—whichfeaturestrendingtopicsandmoments.[385]
InSeptember2018,Twitterbegantomigrateselectedwebuserstoitsprogressivewebapp(basedonitsTwitterLiteexperienceformobileweb),reducingtheinterfacetotwocolumns.MigrationstothisiterationofTwitterincreasedinApril2019,withsomeusersreceivingitwithamodifiedlayout.[386][387]
InJuly2019,Twitterofficiallyreleasedthisredesign,withnofurtheroptiontoopt-outwhileloggedin.Itisdesignedtofurther-unifyTwitter'suserexperiencebetweenthewebandmobileapplicationversions,adoptingathree-columnlayoutwithasidebarcontaininglinkstocommonareas(including"Explore"thathasbeenmergedwiththesearchpage)whichpreviouslyappearedinahorizontaltopbar,profileelementssuchaspictureandheaderimagesandbiographytextsmergedintothesamecolumnasthetimeline,andfeaturesfromthemobileversion(suchasmulti-accountsupport,andanopt-outforthe"toptweets"modeonthetimeline).[388][389]
Outages
TheTwitterfailwhaleerrormessage
Duringanoutage,Twitteruserswereatonetimeshownthe"failwhale"errormessageimagecreatedbyYiyingLu,[390]illustratingeightorangebirdsusinganettohoistawhalefromtheoceancaptioned"Toomanytweets!Pleasewaitamomentandtryagain."[391]WebdesignerandTwitteruserJenSimmonswasthefirsttocointheterm"failwhale"inaSeptember2007tweet.[392][393]InaNovember2013WIREDinterviewChrisFry,VPofEngineeringatthattime,notedthatthecompanyhadtakenthe"failwhale"outofproductionastheplatformwasnowmorestable.[394]
Twitterhadapproximatelyninety-eightpercentuptimein2007(oraboutsixfulldaysofdowntime).[395]Thedowntimewasparticularlynoticeableduringeventspopularwiththetechnologyindustrysuchasthe2008MacworldConference&Expokeynoteaddress.[396][397]
Useraccounts
Privacy,securityandharassment
Twittermessagesarepublic,butuserscanalsosendprivate"directmessages".[398]Informationaboutwhohaschosentofollowanaccountandwhoauserhaschosentofollowisalsopublic,thoughaccountscanbechangedto"protected"whichlimitsthisinformation(andalltweets)toapprovedfollowers.[399]Twittercollectspersonallyidentifiableinformationaboutitsusersandsharesitwiththirdpartiesasspecifiedinitsprivacypolicy.Theservicealsoreservestherighttosellthisinformationasanassetifthecompanychangeshands.[400]WhileTwitterdisplaysnoadvertising,advertiserscantargetusersbasedontheirhistoryoftweetsandmayquotetweetsinads[401]directedspecificallytotheuser.
AsecurityvulnerabilitywasreportedonApril7,2007,byNiteshDhanjaniandRujith.SinceTwitterusedthephonenumberofthesenderofanSMSmessageasauthentication,malicioususerscouldupdatesomeoneelse'sstatuspagebyusingSMSspoofing.[402]Thevulnerabilitycouldbeusedifthespooferknewthephonenumberregisteredtotheirvictim'saccount.Withinafewweeksofthisdiscovery,Twitterintroducedanoptionalpersonalidentificationnumber(PIN)thatitsuserscouldusetoauthenticatetheirSMS-originatingmessages.[403]
OnJanuary5,2009,33 high-profileTwitteraccountswerecompromisedafteraTwitteradministrator'spasswordwasguessedbyadictionaryattack.[404]Someofthecompromisedaccountssentfalsifiedtweets,includingdrug-relatedmessages.[405]
Twitterlaunchedthebetaversionoftheir"VerifiedAccounts"serviceonJune11,2009,allowingpeoplewithpublicprofilestoannouncetheiraccountname.Thehomepagesoftheseaccountsdisplayabadgeindicatingtheirstatus.[406]
InMay2010,abugwasdiscoveredbyİnciSözlükthatcouldallowaTwitterusertoforceotherstofollowthemwithouttheotherusers'consentorknowledge.Forexample,comedianConanO'Brien'saccount,whichhadbeensettofollowonlyoneperson,waschangedtoreceivenearly200malicioussubscriptions.[407]
InresponsetoTwitter'ssecuritybreaches,theUnitedStatesFederalTradeCommission(FTC)broughtchargesagainsttheservice;thechargesweresettledonJune24,2010.ThiswasthefirsttimetheFTChadtakenactionagainstasocialnetworkforsecuritylapses.ThesettlementrequiresTwittertotakeanumberofstepstosecureusers'privateinformation,includingmaintenanceofa"comprehensiveinformationsecurityprogram"tobeindependentlyauditedbiannually.[408]
OnDecember14,2010,theUnitedStatesDepartmentofJusticeissuedasubpoenadirectingTwittertoprovideinformationforaccountsregisteredtoorassociatedwithWikiLeaks.[409]Twitterdecidedtonotifyitsusersandsaidinastatement,"...it'sourpolicytonotifyusersaboutlawenforcementandgovernmentalrequestsfortheirinformation,unlesswearepreventedbylawfromdoingso."[398]
A"MouseOver"exploitoccurredonSeptember21,2010,whenanXSSWormbecameactiveonTwitter.Whenauserheldthemousecursoroverblacked-outpartsofatweet,thewormwithinthescriptwouldautomaticallyopenlinksandre-postitselfonthereader'saccount.[410]Theexploitwasthenre-usedtopostpop-upadsandlinkstopornographicsites.Theoriginofthewormisunclear,butPearceH.Delphin(knownonTwitteras@zzap)andaScandinaviandeveloper,MagnusHolm,bothclaimtohavemodifiedarelatedexploitfoundbyanotheruser(possiblyMasatoKinugawa)whowasusingittocreatecoloredTweets.[411]Kinugawa,aJapanesedeveloper,reportedtheXSSvulnerabilitytoTwitteronAugust14.Later,whenhefounditwasexploitableagain,hecreatedtheaccount'RainbowTwtr'andusedittopostcoloredmessages.[411]DelphinsaysheexposedthesecurityflawbytweetingaJavaScriptfunctionfor"onMouseOver",[411]andHolmlatercreatedandpostedtheXSSWormthatautomaticallyre-tweeteditself.[410]SecurityfirmSophosreportedthattheviruswasspreadbypeopledoingitfor"funandgames",butnoteditcouldbeexploitedbycybercriminals.[410]Twitterissuedastatementontheirstatusblogat13:50UTCthat"Theexploitisfullypatched."[410][412]TwitterrepresentativeCarolynPennersaidnochargeswouldbepressed.[413]
InMay2011,aclaimantknownas"CTB"inthecaseofCTBvTwitterInc.tookactionagainstTwitterattheHighCourtofJusticeofEnglandandWales,[414]requestingthatthecompanyreleasedetailsofaccountholders.ThisfollowedgossippostedonTwitteraboutprofessionalfootballerRyanGiggs'sprivatelife.Thisledtothe2011Britishprivacyinjunctionscontroversyandthe"super-injunction".[415]TonyWang,theheadofTwitterinEurope,saidthatpeoplewhodo"badthings"onthesitewouldneedtodefendthemselvesunderthelawsoftheirownjurisdictionintheeventofcontroversyandthatthesitewouldhandoverinformationaboutuserstotheauthoritieswhenitwaslegallyrequiredtodoso.[416]HealsosuggestedthatTwitterwouldaccedetoaUKcourtordertodivulgenamesofusersresponsiblefor"illegalactivity"onthesite.[417]
TwitteracquiredDasient,astartupthatoffersmalwareprotectionforbusinesses,inJanuary2012.TwitterannouncedplanstouseDasienttohelpremovehatefuladvertisersonthewebsite.[418]Twitteralsoofferedafeaturewhichwouldallowtweetstoberemovedselectivelybycountry,beforedeletedtweetsusedtoberemovedinallcountries.[419][420]ThefirstuseofthepolicywastoblocktheaccountofGermanneo-NazigroupBesseresHannoveronOctober18,2012.[421]Thepolicywasusedagainthefollowingdaytoremoveanti-SemiticFrenchtweetswiththehashtag#unbonjuif("agoodJew").[422]InFebruary2012,athird-partypublic-keyencryptionapp(writteninPythonandpartiallyfundedbyagrantfromtheShuttleworthFoundation[423])forprivatemessaginginTwitter,CrypTweet,wasreleased.[424]AmonthlaterTwitterannounceditwouldimplementthe"DoNotTrack"privacyoption,acookie-blockingfeaturefoundinMozilla'sFirefoxbrowser.The"DoNotTrack"featureworksonlyonsitesthathaveagreedtotheservice.[425]
InAugust2012,itwasreportedthattherewasamarketinfakeTwitterfollowersusedtoincreasepoliticians'andcelebrities'apparentpopularity.[426]Theblackmarketforthefakefollowers,knownas"bots",hasbeenlinkedto"nearlyeverypoliticallylinkedaccountfromtheWhiteHousetoCongresstothe2016campaigntrail".InJune2014,PoliticoanalyzedTwitterhandleswiththehighestratesoffakefollowers:U.S.PresidentBarackObamawith46.8percent,DemocraticNationalCommitteeChairwomanDebbieWassermanSchultzwith35.1percent,andSenatorJohnMcCainwith23.6percent.Theculpritsworkingtogeneratethefakefollowers,or"bots",includedcampaignworkersorfriendsofpoliticalcandidates.Onesiteoffered1,000fakefollowersfor$20.Thepeoplecreatingthe"bots"wereoftenfromEasternEuropeandAsia.[427][428]In2013,twoItalianresearcherscalculated10percentoftotalaccountsonTwitterwere"bots"althoughotherestimateshaveplacedthefigureevenhigher.[429]
Afteranumberofhigh-profilehacksofofficialaccounts,includingthoseoftheAssociatedPressandTheGuardian,[430]inApril2013,Twitterannouncedatwo-factorloginverificationasanaddedmeasureagainsthacking.[431]InAugust2013,Twitterannouncedplanstointroducea"reportabuse"buttonforallversionsofthesitefollowinguproar,includingapetitionwith100,000signatures,overTweetsthatincludedrapeanddeaththreatstohistorianMaryBeard,feministcampaignerCarolineCriado-PerezandthememberofparliamentStellaCreasy.[432][433][434]FollowedthesharingofimagesshowingthekillingofAmericanjournalistJamesFoleyin2014,Twittersaidthatincertaincasesitwoulddeletepicturesofpeoplewhohaddiedafterrequestsfromfamilymembersand"authorizedindividuals".[435][436]
TwitterannouncednewreportingandblockingpoliciesinDecember2014,[437][438][439][440]includingablockingmechanismdevisedbyRandiHarper,atargetofGamerGate.[441][442][443]InFebruary2015,CEODickCostolosaidhewas'franklyashamed'athowpoorlyTwitterhandledtrollingandabuse,andadmittedTwitterhadlostusersasaresult.[444]
In2015,followingupdatedtermsofserviceandprivacypolicy,TwitterusersoutsidetheUnitedStateswerelegallyservedbytheIreland-basedTwitterInternationalCompanyinsteadofTwitter,Inc.ThechangemadetheseuserssubjecttoIrishandEuropeanUniondataprotectionlaws[445]
In2016,TwitterannouncedthecreationoftheTwitterTrust&SafetyCounciltohelp"ensurethatpeoplefeelsafeexpressingthemselvesonTwitter."Thecouncil'sinauguralmembersincluded50organizationsandindividuals.[446]
OnMay5,2018,Twittersentoutanupdate/mailtoeverycustomerregardingabugthatstoredpasswordsunmaskedinaninternallog.Accordingtothemtheinvestigationshowednoindicationsofbreachormisusebutrecommendedeveryonetochangetheirpasswordanyway.[447]
OnMay13,2019,TwitterdisclosedthattheyhaddiscoveredabugthataccidentallysharedlocationdatafromiOSdevicestoanadvertiser.Theyassuredthatthedatawasnotretainedandthatthebugwasfixed.[448][449][450]
OnDecember20,2019,TwitterfixedasecurityvulnerabilityinitsAndroidappthatcouldallowahackertotakeoverauser'saccountandsendtweetsordirectmessagesaswellasseeprivateaccountinfo.[451][452]
The2020DemocraticpresidentialcandidateBernieSandershasfacedcriticismforthebehaviorofsomeofhissupportersonlinebuthasdeflectedsuchcriticism,suggestingthat"Russians"wereimpersonatingpeopleclaimingtobe"BernieBro"supporters.[453]TwitterrejectedSanders'suggestionthatRussiacouldberesponsibleforthebadreputationofhissupporters.ATwitterspokespersontoldCNBC:"Usingtechnologyandhumanreviewinconcert,weproactivelymonitorTwittertoidentifyattemptsatplatformmanipulationandmitigatethem.Asisstandard,ifwehavereasonableevidenceofstate-backedinformationoperations,we'lldisclosethemfollowingourthoroughinvestigationtoourpublicarchive—thelargestofitskindintheindustry."[454]
OnApril8,2020,TwitterannouncedthatusersoutsideoftheEuropeanEconomicAreaorUnitedKingdom(thussubjecttoGDPR)willnolongerbeallowedtooptoutofsharing"mobileappadvertisingmeasurements"toTwitterthird-partypartners.[455]
OnOctober9,2020,Twittertookadditionalstepstocountermisleadingcampaignsaheadofthe2020USElection.Twitter'snewtemporaryupdateencouragedusersto"addtheirowncommentary"beforeretweetingatweet,bymaking'quotingtweet'amandatoryfeatureinsteadofoptional.Thesocialnetworkgiantaimedatgeneratingcontextandencouragingthecirculationofmorethoughtfulcontent.[456]Afterlimitedresults,thecompanyendedthisexperimentinDecember2020.[457]
Suspectandcontestedaccounts
Seealso:DeplatformingandTwittersuspensions
InJanuary2016,TwitterwassuedbythewidowofaU.S.mankilledinthe2015Ammanshootingattack,claimingthatallowingtheIslamicStateofIraqandtheLevant(ISIL)tocontinuallyusetheplatform,includingdirectmessagesinparticular,[458]constitutedtheprovisionofmaterialsupporttoaterroristorganization,whichisillegalunderU.S.federallaw.Twitterdisputedtheclaim,statingthat"violentthreatsandthepromotionofterrorismdeservenoplaceonTwitterand,likeothersocialnetworks,ourrulesmakethatclear."[459][460]ThelawsuitwasdismissedbytheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictofCalifornia,upholdingtheSection230safeharbor,whichdictatesthattheoperatorsofaninteractivecomputerservicearenotliableforthecontentpublishedbyitsusers.[460][461]ThelawsuitwasrevisedinAugust2016,providingcomparisonstoothertelecommunicationsdevices.[458]
TwittersuspendedmultipleparodyaccountsthatsatirizedRussianpoliticsinMay2016,sparkingprotestsandraisingquestionsaboutwherethecompanystandsonfreedomofspeech.[462]Followingpublicoutcry,Twitterrestoredtheaccountsthenextdaywithoutexplainingwhytheaccountshadbeensuspended.[463]Thesameday,Twitter,alongwithFacebook,Google,andMicrosoft,jointlyagreedtoaEuropeanUnioncodeofconductobligatingthemtoreview"[the]majorityofvalidnotificationsforremovalofillegalhatespeech"postedontheirserviceswithin24hours.[464]InAugust2016,Twitterstatedthatithadbanned235,000accountsoverthepastsixmonths,bringingtheoverallnumberofsuspendedaccountsto360,000accountsinthepastyear,forviolatingpoliciesbanninguseoftheplatformtopromoteextremism.[465]
OnMay10,2019,Twitterannouncedthattheysuspended166,513accountsforpromotingterrorismintheJuly–December2018period,statingtherewasasteadydecreaseinterroristgroupstryingtousetheplatformowingtoits"zero-tolerancepolicyenforcement".AccordingtoVijayaGadde,Legal,PolicyandTrustandSafetyLeadatTwitter,therewasareductionof19%terrorrelatedtweetsfromthepreviousreportingperiod(January–June2018).[466][467][468][469][470]
Similarly,Twitterbanned7,000accountsandlimited150,000morethathadtiestoQAnononJuly21,2020.ThebansandlimitscameafterQAnon-relatedaccountsbeganharassingotherusersthroughpracticesofswarmingorbrigading,coordinatedattacksontheseindividualsthroughmultipleaccountsintheweeksprior.ThoseaccountslimitedbyTwitterwillnotappearinsearchesnorbepromotedinotherTwitterfunctions.Twittersaidtheywillcontinuetobanorlimitaccountsasnecessary,withtheirsupportaccountstating"WewillpermanentlysuspendaccountsTweetingaboutthesetopicsthatweknowareengagedinviolationsofourmulti-accountpolicy,coordinatingabusearoundindividualvictims,orareattemptingtoevadeaprevioussuspension".[471]
AsofJuly30,2020,TwitterwillblockURLsintweetsthatpointtoexternalwebsitesthatcontainmaliciouscontent(suchasmalwareandphishingcontent)aswellorhatespeech,speechencouragingviolence,terrorism,childsexualexploitation,breachesofprivacy,andothersimilarcontentthatisalreadybannedaspartofthecontentoftweetsonthesite.Usersthatfrequentlypointtosuchsitesmayhavetheiraccountssuspended.Twittersaidthiswastobringtheirpolicyinlinetopreventusersfrombypassingtheirtweetcontentrestrictionsbysimplylinkingtothebannedcontent.[472]
FollowingtheonsetofprotestsbyDonaldTrump'ssupportersacrosstheUSinJanuary2021,Twittersuspendedmorethan70,000accounts,statingthattheyshared"harmfulQAnon-associatedcontent"atalargescale,andwere"dedicatedtothepropagationofthisconspiracytheoryacrosstheservice".TheriotersthatbrokeintoUSCapitolHillincludedalargeamountofQAnonfollowers.[473]
Maliciousandfakeaccounts
BetweenJanuaryandlateJuly2017,Twitterhadidentifiedandshutdownover7,000fakeaccountscreatedbyIranianinfluenceoperations.[474]
InMay2018,inresponsetoscrutinyoverthemisuseofTwitterbythoseseekingtomaliciouslyinfluenceelections,TwitterannouncedthatitwouldpartnerwiththenonprofitorganizationBallotpediatoaddspeciallabelsverifyingtheauthenticityofpoliticalcandidatesrunningforelectionintheU.S.[475][476]
InDecember2019,Twitterremoved5,929accountsforviolatingtheirmanipulationpolicies.Thecompanyinvestigatedandattributedtheseaccountstoasinglestate-runinformationoperation,whichoriginatedinSaudiArabia.Theaccountswerereportedtobeapartofalargergroupof88,000accountsengagedinspammybehavior.However,Twitterdidnotdiscloseallofthemassomecouldpossiblybelegitimateaccountstakenoverthroughhacking.[477]
InMarch2021,Twittersuspendedaround3,500fakeaccountsthatwererunningacampaigntoinfluencetheAmericanaudience,aftertheUSintelligenceofficialsconcludedthattheassassinationofTheWashingtonPostjournalist,JamalKhashoggiwas"approved"bytheSaudiCrownPrinceMohammedbinSalman.TheseSaudiaccountswereworkingintwolanguages,EnglishandArabic,toinfluencepublicopinionaroundtheissue.ManyaccountscommenteddirectlyonthetweetsofUS-basedmediahouses,includingThePost,CNN,CBSNewsandTheLosAngelesTimes.Twitterwasunabletoidentifythesourceoftheinfluencecampaign.[478]
Twitterbots
Mainarticle:Twitterbot
ATwitterbotisacomputerprogramthatautomaticallypostsonTwitter.Theyareprogrammedtotweet,retweet,andfollowotheraccounts.Accordingtoarecentreport,therewere20 million,fewerthan5%,ofaccountsonTwitterthatwerefraudulentin2013.Thesefakeaccountsareoftenusedtobuildlargefollowerpopulationsquicklyforadvertisers,whileothersrespondtotweetsthatincludeacertainwordorphrase.[479]Twitter'swide-openapplicationprogramminginterfaceandcloudserversmakeitpossiblefortwitterbots'existencewithinthesocialnetworkingsite.[480]
Effects
Twitterbotsarecapableofinfluencingpublicopinionaboutculture,products,andpoliticalagendasbyautomaticallygeneratingmassamountsoftweetsthroughimitatinghumancommunication.[481]TheNewYorkTimesstates,"Theyhavesleep-wakecyclessotheirfakeryismoreconvincing,makingthemlesspronetorepetitivepatternsthatflagthemasmereprograms."[482]Thetweetsgeneratedvaryanywherefromasimpleautomatedresponsetocontentcreationandinformationsharing,allofwhichdependsontheintentionofthepersonpurchasingorcreatingthebot.ThesocialimplicationstheseTwitterbotspotentiallyhaveonhumanperceptionaresizeableaccordingtoastudypublishedbytheScienceDirectJournal.LookingattheComputersasSocialActors(CASA)paradigm,thejournalnotes,"peopleexhibitremarkablesocialreactionstocomputersandothermedia,treatingthemasiftheywererealpeopleorrealplaces."ThestudyconcludedthatTwitterbotswereviewedascredibleandcompetentincommunicationandinteractionmakingthemsuitablefortransmittinginformationinthesocialmediasphere.[483]WhiletechnologicaladvanceshaveenabledtheabilityofsuccessfulHuman-ComputerInteraction,theimplicationsarequestionedduetotheappearanceofbothbenignandmaliciousbotsintheTwitterrealm.BenignTwitterbotsmaygeneratecreativecontentandrelevantproductupdateswhereasmaliciousbotscanmakeunpopularpeopleseempopular,pushirrelevantproductsonusersandspreadmisinformation,spamorslander.[484]
Inadditiontocontent-generatingbots,userscanpurchasefollowers,favorites,retweets,andcommentsonvariouswebsitesthatcatertoexpandingauser'simagethroughtheaccumulationoffollowers.Withmorefollowers,users'profilesgainmoreattention,thusincreasingtheirpopularity.[485]GeneratingWebtrafficisavaluablecommodityforbothindividualsandbusinessesbecauseitindicatesnotability.[486]WithTwitterbots,usersareabletocreatetheillusionof"buzz"ontheirsitebyobtainingfollowersfromservicessuchasSwenzyandundergroundsupplierswhooperatebotfarmsorclickfarms.[481][486]ThecompaniesthatfacilitatethisservicecreatefakeTwitteraccountsthatfollowanumberofpeople,someoftheseTwitteraccountsmayevenpostfaketweetstomakeitseemliketheyarereal.ThispracticeofobtainingmassamountsoftwitterbotsasfollowersisnotpermittedonTwitter.[487]Theemphasisonfollowersandlikesasameasureofsocialcapitalhasurgedpeopletoextendtheircircletoweakandlatenttiestopromotetheideaofpopularityforcelebrities,politicians,musicians,publicfigures,andcompaniesalike.[488]AccordingtoTheNewYorkTimes,botsamasssignificantinfluenceandhavebeennotedtoswayelections,influencethestockmarket,publicappeal,andattackgovernments.[489]
Developers
TwitterisrecognizedforhavingoneofthemostopenandpowerfuldeveloperAPIsofanymajortechnologycompany.[490]DeveloperinterestinTwitterbeganimmediatelyfollowingitslaunch,promptingthecompanytoreleasethefirstversionofitspublicAPIinSeptember2006.[491]TheAPIquicklybecameiconicasareferenceimplementationforpublicRESTAPIsandiswidelycitedinprogrammingtutorials.[492]
From2006until2010,Twitter'sdeveloperplatformexperiencedstronggrowthandahighlyfavorablereputation.DevelopersbuiltuponthepublicAPItocreatethefirstTwittermobilephoneclientsaswellasthefirstURLshortener.Between2010and2012,however,Twittermadeanumberofdecisionsthatwerereceivedunfavorablybythedevelopercommunity.[493]In2010,TwittermandatedthatalldevelopersadoptOAuthauthenticationwithjust9weeksofnotice.[494]Laterthatyear,TwitterlauncheditsownURLshortener,indirectcompetitionwithsomeofitsmostwell-known3rd-partydevelopers.[495]Andin2012,TwitterintroducedstrictusagelimitsforitsAPI,"completelycrippling"somedevelopers.[496]Whilethesemovessuccessfullyincreasedthestabilityandsecurityoftheservice,theywerebroadlyperceivedashostiletodevelopers,causingthemtolosetrustintheplatform.[497]
Inanefforttoresetitsrelationshipwithdevelopers,TwitteracquiredCrashlyticsonJanuary28,2013,foroverUS$100 million,itslargestacquisitiontodate.[71]Twittercommittedtocontinuesupportingandexpandingtheservice.[498]
InOctober2014,TwitterannouncedFabric,asuiteofmobiledevelopertoolsbuiltaroundCrashlytics.[499]FabricbroughttogetherCrashlytics,Answers(mobileappanalytics),Beta(mobileappdistribution),Digits(mobileappidentityandauthenticationservices),MoPub,andTwitterKit(loginwithTwitterandTweetdisplayfunctionality)intoasingle,modularSDK,allowingdeveloperstopickandchoosewhichfeaturestheyneededwhileguaranteeingeaseofinstallationandcompatibility.BybuildingFabricontopofCrashlytics,TwitterwasabletotakeadvantageofCrashlytics'largeadoptionanddevicefootprinttorapidlyscaleusageofMoPubandTwitterKit.Fabricreachedactivedistributionacross1 billionmobiledevicesjust8monthsafteritslaunch.[500]
Inearly2016,TwitterannouncedthatFabricwasinstalledonmorethan2 billionactivedevicesandusedbymorethan225,000developers.Fabricisrecognizedasthe#1mostpopularcrashreportingandalsothe#1mobileanalyticssolutionamongthetop200iOSapps,beatingoutGoogleAnalytics,Flurry,andMixPanel.[501][502]
Innovatorspatentagreement
OnApril17,2012,Twitterannounceditwouldimplementan"InnovatorsPatentAgreement"whichwouldobligateTwittertoonlyuseitspatentsfordefensivepurposes[clarify].Theagreementwentintoeffectin2012.[503]
Opensource
Twitterhasahistoryofbothusingandreleasingopen-sourcesoftwarewhileovercomingtechnicalchallengesoftheirservice.[504]Apageintheirdeveloperdocumentationthanksdozensofopen-sourceprojectswhichtheyhaveused,fromrevisioncontrolsoftwarelikeGittoprogramminglanguagessuchasRubyandScala.[505]SoftwarereleasedasopensourcebythecompanyincludestheGizzardScalaframeworkforcreatingdistributeddatastores,thedistributedgraphdatabaseFlockDB,theFinaglelibraryforbuildingasynchronousRPCserversandclients,theTwUIuserinterfaceframeworkforiOS,andtheBowerclient-sidepackagemanager.[506]ThepopularBootstrapfrontendframeworkwasalsostartedatTwitterandis10thmostpopularrepositoryonGitHub.[507]
Society
Dorsey(left)saidafteraTwitterTownHallwithBarackObamaheldinJuly2011,thatTwitterreceivedover110,000#AskObamatweets.[508]
Mainarticle:Twitterusage
Usage
Protesters
Twitterhasbeenusedforavarietyofpurposesinmanyindustriesandscenarios.Forexample,ithasbeenusedtoorganizeprotests,sometimesreferredtoas"TwitterRevolutions",[509]whichincludetheprotestsoverthe2009Moldovanelection,the2009studentprotestsinAustria,the2009Gaza–Israelconflict,the2009Iraniangreenrevolution,the2010TorontoG20protests,the2010BolivarianRevolution,the2010Stuttgart21protestsinGermany,the2011EgyptianRevolution,2011Englandriots,the2011UnitedStatesOccupymovement,the2011anti-austeritymovementinSpain,the2011AganaktismenoimovementsinGreece,the2011demonstrationinRome,the2011Wisconsinlaborprotests,the2012Gaza–Israelconflict,the2013protestsinBrazil,andthe2013GeziParkprotestsinTurkey.[510]AresultoftheIranianelectionprotestssawthegovernmentofIranblockTwitterincensorship.[511]
Theserviceisalsousedasaformofcivildisobedience:In2010,usersexpressedoutrageovertheTwitterJokeTrialbycopyingacontroversialjokeaboutbombinganairportandattachingthehashtag#IAmSpartacus,areferencetothefilmSpartacus(1960)andasignofsolidarityandsupporttoamancontroversiallyprosecutedafterpostingatweetjokingaboutbombinganairportiftheycanceledhisflight.#IAmSpartacusbecamethenumberonetrendingtopiconTwitterworldwide.[512]Anothercaseofcivildisobediencehappenedinthe2011Britishprivacyinjunctiondebate,whereseveralcelebritieswhohadtakenoutanonymizedinjunctionswereidentifiedbythousandsofusersinprotesttotraditionaljournalismbeingcensored.[513]
DuringtheArabSpringinearly2011,thenumberofhashtagsmentioningtheuprisingsinTunisiaandEgyptincreased.[514]AstudybytheDubaiSchoolofGovernmentfoundthatonly0.26%oftheEgyptianpopulation,0.1%oftheTunisianpopulationand0.04%oftheSyrianpopulationareactiveonTwitter.[515]
Governments
AccordingtodocumentsleakedbyEdwardSnowdenandpublishedinJuly2014,theUnitedKingdom'sGCHQhasatoolnamedBIRDSONGfor"automatedpostingofTwitterupdates",andatoolnamedBIRDSTRIKEfor"Twittermonitoringandprofilecollection".[516][517]
Duringthe2019–20HongKongprotests,Twittersuspendedacoregroupof1,000"fake"accountsandanassociatednetworkof200,000accountsforoperatingadisinformationcampaignthatwaslinkedtotheChinesegovernment.Intheirannouncement,Twitterreleasedtwodatasetsdetailingthecoregroup'saccountactivity.[518][519][520]GengShuang,thespokespersonoftheChineseMinistryofForeignAffairs,didnotcommentonthesuspensionsbutsuggestedthattheactivitycouldbeattributedtooverseasChinesecitizens.[521][522]
OnJune12,2020,Twittersuspendedover7,000accountsfromTurkeybecausethoseaccountswerefakeprofiles,designedtosupporttheTurkishpresidentandweremanagedbyacentralauthority.Turkey'scommunicationdirectorsaidthatthedecisionwasillogical,biasedandpoliticallymotivated.[523]
InMay2021,TwitterlabeledoneofthetweetsbySambitPatra,aspokesmanofthelocalrulingpartyBJPinIndia,as"manipulatedmedia",leadingtoTwitter'sofficesinDelhiandGurgaonbeingraidedbythelocalpolice.[524]Twitterissuedastatement,callingthepolicevisit"aformofintimidation".[525]Later,theIndiangovernmentreleasedastatementinJuly2021claimingTwitterhaslostitsliabilityprotectionconcerninguser-generatedcontent.ThiswasbroughtonbyTwitter'sfailuretocomplywiththenewITrulesintroducedin2021withafilingstatingthatthecompanyfailedtoappointexecutivestogovernusercontentontheplatform.[526]TwitterstatedtoIndia'sgovernmentinAugust2021thattheyhaveappointedpermanentexecutivesandstafftoprovideforcompliancetothesenewITrules.[527]
Far-rightcontent
Postsontheserviceoftencontainfar-rightcontent,suchashatespeechandconspiracytheoriessuchasQAnon.[528]Journalists[which?]havecriticizedTwitterforhatespeechbeingeasytofindontheplatform.[529]
Impact
Instant,short,andfrequentcommunication
InMay2008,TheWallStreetJournalwrotethatsocialnetworkingservicessuchasTwitter"elicitmixedfeelingsinthetechnology-savvypeoplewhohavebeentheirearlyadopters.Fanssaytheyareagoodwaytokeepintouchwithbusyfriends.Butsomeusersarestartingtofeeltooconnected,astheygrapplewithcheck-inmessagesatoddhours,highercellphonebillsandtheneedtotellacquaintancestostopannouncingwhatthey'rehavingfordinner."[530]Thefollowingyear,JohnC.DvorakdescribedTwitteras"thenewCBradio".[531]
Emergencyuse
ApracticaluseforTwitter'sreal-timefunctionalityisasaneffectivedefactoemergencycommunicationsystemforbreakingnews.Itwasneitherintendednordesignedforhigh-performancecommunication,buttheideathatitcouldbeusedforemergencycommunicationwasnotlostonthecreators,whoknewthattheservicecouldhavewide-reachingeffectsearlyonwhenthecompanyusedittocommunicateduringearthquakes.[532]
AnotherpracticalusethatisbeingstudiedisTwitter'sabilitytotrackepidemicsandhowtheyspread.[533]
AdditionallyTwitterservesasareal-timesensorfornaturaldisasterssuchasbushfiresandearthquakes.[534][535]
Education
Twitterhasbeenadoptedasacommunicationandlearningtoolineducationalandresearch[536]settingsmostlyincollegesanduniversities.[537][538]Ithasbeenusedasabackchanneltopromotestudentinteractions,especiallyinlarge-lecturecourses.[539]ResearchhasfoundthatusingTwitterincollegecourseshelpsstudentscommunicatewitheachotherandfaculty,promotesinformallearning,allowsshystudentsaforumforincreasedparticipation,increasesstudentengagement,andimprovesoverallcoursegrades.[540][541][542]
Twitterhasbeenanincreasinglygrowinginthefieldofeducation,asaneffectivetoolthatcanbeusedtoencouragelearningandidea,orknowledgesharing,inandoutsidetheclassroom.[543]Byusingorcreatinghashtags,studentsandeducatorsareabletocommunicateunderspecificcategoriesoftheirchoice,toenhanceandpromoteeducation.Abroadexampleofahashtagusedineducationis"edchat",tocommunicatewithotherteachers,andpeopleusingthathashtag.Onceteachersfindsomeonetheywanttotalkto,theycaneitherdirectmessagetheperson,ornarrowdownthehashtagtomakethetopicoftheconversationmorespecificusinghashtagsforscichat(science),engchat(English),sschat(socialstudies).[543]
Ina2011study,researchersfoundthatyoungpeoplesuseofTwitterhelpedtoimproverelationshipswithteachers,encourageinteractivelearning,andultimatelyleadtohighgrades.[543]Inthesamestudyitwasfoundthatoutofagroupof158educators,92%agreedthatthereasontheyuseTwitterisbecauseofhowuserfriendlyitis,[543]another86%agreedthattheystartedandcontinueusingTwitterbecauseofhoweasyitistolearn,andfinally,[543]93%saidtheyuseTwitterbecauseitisfree.Peoplefoundthatsiftingthroughlargeamountsofdataischallenging,however,withthesimplenatureofTwitterlargeamountofinformationbecameeasilyaccessible.[544]Muchofthissimplicitycomesfromtheuseofthehashtag,andtheintuitivenatureofhowTwitterasamicrobloggingsiteoperates.[544]Thesefeatureshelptopromoteeducationoutsidetheclassroominaglobalsettingwherestudentsandeducatorsareeasilyabletocreate,connect,andshareknowledge.Thisultimatelypromotesgrowthandlearningamongstudentsandeducators,notjustintheclassroom,butvirtuallyandaroundtheworld.
Publicfigures
TechwriterBruceSterlingcommentedin2007thatusingTwitterfor"literatecommunication"is"aboutaslikelyasfiringupaCBradioandhearingsomeguyrecitetheIliad".[545]InSeptember2008,thejournalistCliveThompsonmusedinaNewYorkTimesMagazineeditorialthattheservicehadexpandednarcissisminto"anew,supermetabolicextreme—theultimateexpressionofagenerationofcelebrity-addledyouthswhobelievetheireveryutteranceisfascinatingandoughttobesharedwiththeworld".[546]Oneoftheearliestdocumentedformsofcelebrity-relatedTwitter-likedisclosuresdatesfrom1980,whenrealestatemogulWilliamDesmondRyanmaderound-the-clockpressreleasesabouthisrelationshipwithcomedianPhyllisDiller,evenrevealingwhatshewasmakinghimfordinneronanightlybasis.[547]Conversely,VancouverSuncolumnistSteveDottoopinedthatpartofTwitter'sappealisthechallengeoftryingtopublishsuchmessagesintightconstraints,[548]andJonathanZittrain,professorofInternetlawatHarvardLawSchool,saidthat"thequalitiesthatmakeTwitterseeminaneandhalf-bakedarewhatmakesitsopowerful."[549]Inthatsamevein,andwithSigmundFreudinmind,politicalcommunicationsexpertMatthewAuerobservedthatwell-craftedtweetsbypublicfiguresoftendeliberatelymixtrivialandseriousinformationsoastoappealtoallthreepartsofthereader'spersonality:theid,ego,andsuperego.[550]
ThepoetsMiraGonzalezandTaoLinpublishedabooktitledSelectedTweetsfeaturingselectionsoftheirtweetsoversomeeightyears.Thebookwasdesignedtolooklikeasmallbible.[551]
ThenovelistRickMoodywroteashortstoryforElectricLiteraturecalled"SomeContemporaryCharacters,"composedentirelyoftweets.[552]
In2009,NielsenOnlinereportedthatTwitterhadauser-retentionrateoffortypercent.Manypeoplestopusingtheserviceafteramonth;thereforethesitemaypotentiallyreachonlyabouttenpercentofallInternetusers.[553]In2009,Twitterwonthe"BreakoutoftheYear"WebbyAward.[554][555]DuringaFebruary2009discussiononNationalPublicRadio'sWeekendEdition,thejournalistDanielSchorrstatedthatTwitteraccountsofeventslackedrigorousfact-checkingandothereditorialimprovements.Inresponse,AndyCarvingaveSchorrtwoexamplesofbreakingnewsstoriesthatplayedoutonTwitterandsaiduserswantedfirst-handaccountsandsometimesdebunkedstories.[556]OnNovember29,2009,TwitterwasnamedtheWordoftheYearbytheGlobalLanguageMonitor,declaringit"anewformofsocialinteraction".[557]Timemagazineacknowledgeditsgrowinglevelofinfluenceinits2010Time100;todeterminetheinfluenceofpeople,itusedaformulabasedonfamoussocialnetworkingsites,TwitterandFacebook.ThelistrangesfromBarackObamaandOprahWinfreytoLadyGagaandAshtonKutcher.[558][559]TheU.S.government,seeingsocialmedia'sroleinthe2010ArabSpringrevolts,covertlydevelopedaCubanalternativetoTwittercalledZunZuneoaspartofalong-termstrategyto"stirunrest".Theservicewasactivefrom2010to2012.[560]
Duringthe2012SummerOlympicsopeningceremony,inwhichheappearedattheLondonOlympicStadiuminperson,[561]SirTimBerners-Lee,thefounderoftheWorldWideWeb,tweeted"Thisisforeveryone",[562]whichwasinstantlyspelledoutinLCDlightsattachedtothechairsofthe80,000peopleintheaudience.[561]
ManycommentatorshavesuggestedthatTwitterradicallychangedtheformatofreportingduetoinstant,short,andfrequentcommunication.[563][564]AccordingtoTheAtlanticwritersBenjaminM.ReillyandRobinsonMeyer,Twitterhasanoutsizedimpactonthepublicdiscourseandmedia."SomethinghappensonTwitter;celebrities,politiciansandjournaliststalkaboutit,andit'scirculatedtoawideraudiencebyTwitter'salgorithms;journalistswriteaboutthedustup."ThiscanleadtoanargumentonaTwitterfeedlookinglikea"debateroilingthecountry...regularpeopleareleftwithaconfused,agitatedviewofourcurrentpoliticaldiscourse".[565]Ina2018articleintheColumbiaJournalismReview,MatthewIngramarguedmuchthesameaboutTwitter's"oversizedrole"andthatitpromotesimmediacyovernewsworthiness.[566]Insomecases,inauthenticandprovocativetweetsweretakenupascommonopinioninmainstreamarticles.WritersinseveraloutletsunintentionallycitedtheopinionsofRussianInternetResearchAgency-affiliatedaccounts.[566][567]
Worldleaders
DonaldTrump'sTwitterpost
WorldleadersandtheirdiplomatshavetakennoteofTwitter'srapidexpansionandhavebeenincreasinglyutilizingTwitterdiplomacy,theuseofTwittertoengagewithforeignpublicsandtheirowncitizens.USAmbassadortoRussia,MichaelA.McFaulhasbeenattributedasapioneerofinternationalTwitterdiplomacy.HeusedTwitterafterbecomingambassadorin2011,postinginEnglishandRussian.[568]OnOctober24,2014,QueenElizabethIIsentherfirsttweettomarktheopeningoftheLondonScienceMuseum'sInformationAgeexhibition.[569]A2013studybywebsiteTwiplomacyfoundthat153ofthe193countriesrepresentedattheUnitedNationshadestablishedgovernmentTwitteraccounts.[570]Thesamestudyalsofoundthatthoseaccountsamountedto505Twitterhandlesusedbyworldleadersandtheirforeignministers,withtheirtweetsabletoreachacombinedaudienceofover106 millionfollowers.[570]
Accordingtoananalysisofaccounts,theheadsofstateof125countriesand139otherleadingpoliticianshaveTwitteraccountsthathavebetweenthemsentmorethan350,000tweetsandhavealmost52 millionfollowers.However,only30ofthesedotheirowntweeting,morethan80donotsubscribetootherpoliticiansandmanydonotfollowanyaccounts.[571]
DonaldTrumpusedTwitterasamethodofprovidingideasandinformationduringhispresidentialcampaignin2016,thetransitionalperiodandasUSPresident.AstudyperformedatRose-HulmanInstituteofTechnologyshowedhistweetsfromthesedifferenttimeperiodsandthroughanalysisofhistweets,theprofessorsfoundthatPresidentTrumpusesamodecalled"forensicmode"themostofteninhistweets.Thisisdescribedasaquickreactiveusage,astheyfoundheoftenusedTwittertoshowhisjudgmentoftheeventsthatoccurredregardingbothhisalliesandhisenemies.[572]Afterhiselectiontothepresidencyhetweetedthis"forensic-style"tweet,"Justhadaveryopenandsuccessfulelection.Nowprofessionalprotesters,incitedbythemedia,areprotesting.VeryUnfair!".[573]
InastudydoneatNewYorkUniversityin2015,ananalysisandcomparisonoftheTwitteraccountsofDonaldTrump,JebBush,BernieSanders,andHillaryClinton,foundobservationsshowingthegoalsofeachcandidate'sTwitterduringtheirrespectiveprimaryelections.SomecomparisonsthatweremadeweretheuseofAristotle'stheoryofRhetoric.TheresearchfoundthatDonaldTrumpusedpathos,theappealtoemotion,inhisrhetoric;BernieSanderstendedtouseethosandlogosforhisTwitter;HillaryClintontendedtouselogosandpathostotrytoconveyhervalues,andJebBushshowsthatheusesamixofallthreeonhisaccount.Thestudyalsolookedatthemediaresponsetothetweetsduringtheelection.Thestudyfoundthatthetweetsbecamemorepersuasiveforthecandidatesifthemediaputthetweetsinfrontofmoreviewers,versuslesspowerfuliftheywereonlyvisibletothosealreadyonTwitter.Inthatway,presidentialcandidateswhohadtheirtweetscoveredmoreinthenewswereabletogettheirmessagetomorepotentialvoters.[574]
Religion
AsofOctober2015,morethantwentyRomanCatholiccardinalsmanagedactiveTwitteraccounts,[575]nineofwhomwerecardinalelectorsforthe2013Papalconclave.[576]PopeBenedictXVI'sTwitteraccountwassetupin2012.AsofApril2016,hissuccessor,PopeFrancis,has9.06 millionfollowersofhisTwitteraccount(@Pontifex).[577][needsupdate]
Censorshipandmoderation
Mainarticles:CensorshipofTwitter,Deplatforming,andTwittersuspensions
TwitterisbannedcompletelyinRussia,[578]Iran,ChinaandNorthKorea,[579]andhasbeenintermittentlyblockedinnumerouscountriesincludingEgypt,Iraq,Nigeria,Turkey,VenezuelaandTurkmenistanondifferentbases.[580][581][582][583][584][585]In2016,TwittercooperatedwiththeIsraeligovernmenttoremovecertaincontentoriginatingoutsideIsraelfromtweetsseeninIsrael.[586]Inthe11thbiannualtransparencyreportpublishedonSeptember19,2017,TwittersaidthatTurkeywasthefirstamongcountrieswhereabout90percentofremovalrequestscamefrom,followedbyRussia,FranceandGermany.[587]TwitterstatedthatbetweenJuly1andDecember31,2018,"Wereceivedlegaldemandsrelatingto27,283accountsfrom47differentcountries,includingBulgaria,Kyrgyzstan,Macedonia,andSloveniaforthefirsttime."[588]AspartofevidencetoaUSSenateEnquiry,thecompanyadmittedthattheirsystems"detectedandhid"severalhundredthousandtweetsrelatingtothe2016DemocraticNationalCommitteeemailleak.[589]DuringthecurfewinJammuandKashmirafterrevocationofitsautonomousstatusonAugust5,2019,theIndiangovernmentapproachedTwittertoblockaccountsaccusedofspreadinganti-Indiacontent;[590]byOctober25,nearlyonemilliontweetshadbeenremovedasaresult.[591]
Hashtagsuppression
Afterclaimsinthemediathatthehashtags#wikileaksand#occupywallstreetwerebeingcensoredbecausetheydidnotshowuponthesite'slistoftrendingtopics,Twitterrespondedbystatingthatitdoesnotcensorhashtagsunlesstheycontainobscenities.[592][593][594]
Trust&SafetyCouncil
TheannouncementofTwitter's"Trust&SafetyCouncil"wasmetwithobjectionfrompartsofitsuserbase.[595][596]Criticsaccusedthememberorganizationsofbeingheavilyskewedtowards"therestrictionofhatespeech"andaReasonarticleexpressedconcernthat"there'snotasingleuncompromisinganti-censorshipfigureorgrouponthelist".[597][598]
Moderationoftweets
Twitterremovedmorethan88,000propagandaaccountslinkedtoSaudiArabia.[599]TwitterremovedtweetsfromaccountsassociatedwiththeRussianInternetResearchAgencythathadtriedtoinfluencepublicopinionduringandafterthe2016election.[566][567]InJune2020,Twitteralsoremoved175,000propagandaaccountsthatwerespreadingbiasedpoliticalnarrativesfortheCommunistPartyofChina,theUnitedRussiaParty,orTurkey'sPresidentErdogan,identifiedbasedoncentralizedbehavior.[600][601]TwitteralsoremovedaccountslinkedtothegovernmentsofArmenia,Egypt,Cuba,Serbia,Honduras,IndonesiaandIran.[602][603][604]TwittersuspendedPakistaniaccountstiedtogovernmentofficialsforpostingtweetsabouttheKashmirconflictbetweenIndiaandPakistan.[605]InFebruary2021,TwitterremovedaccountsinIndiathatcriticizedPrimeMinisterNarendraModi'sgovernmentforitsconductduringIndianfarmers'protestsin2020–2021.[606]
Atthestartofthe2020COVID-19pandemic,numeroustweetsreportedfalsemedicalinformationrelatedtothepandemic.Twitterannouncedanewpolicyinwhichtheywouldlabeltweetscontainingmisinformationgoingforward.[105]InApril2020,TwitterremovedaccountswhichdefendedPresidentRodrigoDuterte'sresponsetothespreadofCOVID-19inthePhilippines.[607]
InNovember2020,thenChiefTechnologyOfficerandfutureCEOofTwitterParagAgrawal,whenaskedbyMITTechnologyReviewaboutbalancingtheprotectionoffreespeechasacorevalueandtheendeavourtocombatmisinformation,said:"OurroleisnottobeboundbytheFirstAmendment,butourroleistoserveahealthypublicconversation…focuslessonthinkingaboutfreespeech,butthinkingabouthowthetimeshavechanged."[608]
LogoofBirdwatch,aplannedTwitterprogram
Aspartofitsmeanstomoderatemisinformation,Twitterlauncheditscrowd-sourcedBirdwatchprograminJanuary2021.Trustedusersintheprogramwillhavetheabilitytomonitortweetsandrepliesthatmayincludemisinformationandcountermessagesprovidingfact-checkingastohaveTwittertagthesemessagesappropriatelyfromtheBirdwatchcommunity.[609]
InNovember2021,TwitterannouncedanupdatetotheBirdwatchmoderationtool,meanttolimitthevisibilityofcontributors'identitiesbycreatingaliasesfortheiraccounts.[610]
InMarch2022,TwitterexpandedaccesstonotesmadebytheBirdwatchmoderators,givingarandomizedsetofUSuserstheabilitytoviewthenotesattachedtotweetsandratethem.Userscanchooseoneofthreeoptions:"Helpful","Somewhat"or"No".TheexpansionfollowedafterTheWashingtonPost'sreportonBirdwatchbeingtooopaque.[611][612]
ModerationofPresidentDonaldTrump
Mainarticle:SocialmediausebyDonaldTrump§ Twitter
ThetwotweetsonMay26,2020,fromPresidentTrumpthatTwitterhadmarked"potentiallymisleading"(insertingthebluewarningiconand"Getthefacts..."language)thatledtotheexecutiveorder
DonaldTrumphadjoinedTwitterin2009,priortohispresidency.ManyTwitteremployeeshadexpressedconcerntothecompany'smanagementabouthostingTrumppriortoandatthestartofhispresidency.Trumpcontinuedtousehispersonalaccount"@realDonaldTrump",ratherthantheofficialpresidentialaccount"@POTUS"thatTwitterhadarrangedpreviously.TwitteremployeesremainedhighlyskepticalofTrump'suseofTwitter,particularlyaftertheshooterinthe2019ElPasoshootinghadwrittenamanifestothatrecitedmanyofTrump'spriortweets;employeesconsideredTrumpwasusingTwitterasa"dogwhistle".Twitteroptedtoeliminateallpoliticaladvertisinginwakeofthis.[613]
AfterTrumphadusedhisTwitteraccountonMay26,2020,toissueastatementrelatedtopossiblefraudassociatedwithmail-invotingaheadoftheupcoming2020primaryelections.TwittermoderatorsusedtheaforementionedtoolstomarkTrump'stweetsas"potentiallymisleading"andaddedlinkstoadedicatedpagewithadditionalarticlesfromothernewssourcesonmail-invoting,thefirsttimetheyhadmarkedTrump'stweetsassuch.[614]Trump,whohadpreviouslyallegedTwitter,andothertechnologycompanies,haveananti-conservativebias,[615]announcedhisintentiontoenactregulationstotakeactionagainstTwitter.Twodayslater,onMay28,2020,Trumpsigned"ExecutiveOrderonPreventingOnlineCensorship"[616]aimedtoimpacttheprotectionsofSection230oftheCommunicationsDecencyActwhichTwitterandothersocialmediasiteshavetoavoidliabilityfordealingwithmoderationofusercontentontheirplatforms.[617][618][619]
Aroundthistime,themurderofGeorgeFloyd,anAfrican-American,inanincidentinvolvingthreeWhiteandoneHmongMinneapolisPoliceDepartmentofficersonMay25,sparkedracially-drivenriotsinthecitythatturnedviolentbytheeveningofMay28.Trumptweetedhisopinionontheviolentprotests,statinghehadspokentostategovernorTimWalzaboutbringingNationalGuardforcestohelpcalmthesituation,butconcludedthetweetbysaying"Anydifficultyandwewillassumecontrolbut,whenthelootingstarts,theshootingstarts."Twitter,afterinternalconsultationwithitsreviewboardsandmanagement,optedtoadda"publicinterestnotice"[620]tothetweet,[621]warningusersit"glorifiedviolence"andwhiletheynormallywouldhaveremovedsuchpostsinthepast,they"havekepttheTweetonTwitterbecauseitisimportantthatthepublicstillbeabletoseetheTweetgivenitsrelevancetoongoingmattersofpublicimportance."[622]TwitteruserswerestillabletoviewTrump'stweetiftheychosetoclickonit,butcouldnotlikeorretweetitwithouttheirowncomment.[623]
Mainarticle:Biden–Ukraineconspiracytheory
Goingintothelatemonthsofthe2020UnitedStatespresidentialelection,TwittercontinuedtomarkseveraltweetsfromTrump,otherconservativelawmakers,andvariousalt-andfar-rightuserswithsimilarmisinformationlabels,ortakingotheractionswhenthesetweetsviolatedtheiruserpolicy.OnOctober14,2020,theNewYorkPostpublishedastorycontainingallegationsaboutHunterBiden,sonofJoeBiden.TwitterandFacebookbothimplementedmeasuresontheirplatformstopreventsharingoftheNewYorkPostarticle,withTwitterdoingsoaccordingtotheirHackedMaterialsPolicyandFacebookperapolicythat"inmanycountries,includingintheU.S.,ifwehavesignalsthatapieceofcontentisfalse,wetemporarilyreduceitsdistributionpendingreviewbyathird-partyfact-checker."[624][625][626]CommentatorsfromvariedpoliticalbackgroundscriticizedtheactionstakenbyFacebookandTwitter,arguingthattheycouldhaveamplifieddisinformationduetotheStreisandeffect.[627]
Aftertheelection,inwhichBidenhadbeendeterminedtobethewinner,Trumpandseveralofhisalliescontinuedtodisputetheresultsthroughlegalactions,whilecontinuingtoasserttherewasfraudandotherinconsistenciesonTwitter.Twittercontinuedtoapplytheirmoderationastheyhaddonebefore.TheNewYorkTimesestimatedthat34%ofTrump'stweetsinthedaysaftertheelectionwereflaggedbyTwitter.[613]TrumpcontinuedtothreatenrevokingSection230duetoactionsbyTwitterandothersocialmediacompaniesbydemandingCongressincludeitsrevokingintheWilliamM.(Mac)ThornberryNationalDefenseAuthorizationActforFiscalYear2021.[628]Separately,newsocialmediacompaniessuchasParlerwerecreatedtocaterspecificallytoconservativeandright-leaningvoicesthatfeltthatTwitterandothersocialmediacompaniesweresuppressingtheirvoice.[629]
Seealso:2021stormingoftheUnitedStatesCapitol
Messagedisplayedonthe"@realDonaldTrump"accountafterTrump'sbanonJanuary8,2021
OnJanuary6,2021,pro-TrumpprotestorsstormedtheUnitedStatesCapitolbuildingtoviolentlydisrupttheElectoralCollegevotecountafterTrumphadheldarallyearlierinthedaypromotingtheprotestorstomarchtotheCapitolandchallengetheelectionresults.Duringthestorming,Trumphadtweetedmessagesincludingavideomessagetotrytourgecalmbutwhichcontinuedtoasserttheelectionwasfraudulent.TwitterlockeddownTrump'saccountforatwelve-hourperiod,preventinganyonefromretweetingorreplyingtothetweets,andinformedTrumptheywouldrestoreaccessifheremovedthreespecifictweetsthatcontinuedtoassertelectionfraudandwouldpermanentlyblockhisaccountshouldhecontinuetomakesuchclaims.[630]TrumpcompliedwithremovingtheindicatedtweetsbyJanuary7.[631]However,fromtweetsthatTrumphadpostedfollowingthetemporaryblock,TwitterpermanentlysuspendedTrump'saccount"duetotheriskoffurtherincitementofviolence"onJanuary8.[632][633]TwitterpointedtotwoofTrump'stweetsmadeonJanuary7astroublesome.OneofTrump'stweetstated"The75,000,000greatAmericanPatriotswhovotedforme,AMERICAFIRST,andMAKEAMERICAGREATAGAIN,willhaveaGIANTVOICElongintothefuture.Theywillnotbedisrespectedortreatedunfairlyinanyway,shapeorform!!!",whileasecondindicatedthathewouldnotbeattendingBiden'sinauguration,whichTwittertooktogetheras"likelytoinspireotherstoreplicatetheviolentactsthattookplaceonJanuary6,2021,andthattherearemultipleindicatorsthattheyarebeingreceivedandunderstoodasencouragementtodoso."[632]
Twitteralsoproactivelytookstepsagainstthe"@POTUS"Twitteraccount,whichTrumphadstartedtouseafterhisaccountwasbanned,blockingmessagespostedthereaspartofTrump'sbanevasion.[632]Trumpalsoattemptedtousehiscampaign'sTwitteraccountbeforeitwassimilarlyblocked.[634]Twitter'sCEOJackDorseyandotherexecutiveshadbeenhesitanttoevokeabanonTrump,butwaspressuredbyemployeesandmembersofthesafetyteamwhohadseenTrump'stweetscreatingchatterfromright-wingaccountsonTwitterandonright-wingsocialmediasiteslikeParler.[613]InadditiontobanningTrump,inthefollowingweekendTwittersubsequentlybannedorblockedmorethan70,000accountsthatweretiedtoQAnonthatwerecontinuingtopromoteelectionfraudandpro-Trumpconspiracytheories.[613]
Twitter'sdecisionwascriticizedbyfreespeechadvocatessuchastheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.[613]ChancellorofGermanyAngelaMerkelcriticizedthebansayingthat"lawmakersshouldsettherulesgoverningfreespeechandnotprivatetechnologycompanies."[120]ThepresidentofMexicoAndrésManuelLópezObradorsaidthat"havingprivatecompaniesdecidewhocanbesilencedandcensoredgoesagainstfreedomofspeech."[635]OnJanuary14,TwitterCEOJackDorseydefendedbanningTrump,butalsosaidit"setsaprecedentIfeelisdangerous,"butadded"Everythingwelearninthismomentwillbetteroureffort,andpushustobewhatweare:onehumanityworkingtogether."[636][613]
TrumptooklegalactionagainstTwitterinOctober2021intheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheSouthernDistrictofFlorida,assertingthatTwitter'sbanviolatedhisFirstAmendmentrightsaswellasillegalunderFlorida'sdeplatforminglawthathadbeenpassedbythestateinMay2021byblockedbyafederaljudgeinJuly2021.[637]
Fines,penaltiesandsanctions
Violationofcampaignfinancelaws
InOctober2020,Twitterwasfined$100,000byWashingtonStateforviolatingthatstate'scampaignfinancedisclosurerules.AjudgementfiledonOctober13,2020,found"thesocialmediaplatformfailedtomaintainpublicinspectionrecordsofnearly$200,000paidtoitforpoliticaladsinviolationofstatelaw"accordingtoWashingtonAttorneyGeneralBobFerguson.[638]
Television
TwitterisincreasinglyusedforTVtobemoreinteractive.[639]Thiseffectissometimesreferredtoasthesecondscreen,[640]"virtualwatercooler"orsocialtelevision—thepracticehasbeencalled"chatterboxing".[641]TwitterhasbeensuccessfullyusedtoencouragepeopletowatchliveTVevents,suchastheOscars,theSuperBowl[642]andtheMTVVideoMusicAwards;howeverthisstrategyhasprovenlesseffectivewithregularlyscheduledTVshows.[643]Suchdirectcross-promotionshavebeenbannedfromFrenchtelevisionduetoregulationsagainstsecretadvertising.[644]
InDecember2012,TwitterandNielsenenteredamulti-yearagreementtoproducesocialTVratings,whichareexpectedtobecommerciallyavailableforthefall2013seasonastheNielsenTwitterTVRating.[645]AdvertisingAgesaidTwitterhadbecomethenewTVGuide.[646]TheninFebruary2013,TwitteracquiredBluefinLabsforanestimatedUS$50 millionto$100 million.Foundedin2008attheMITMediaLab,Bluefinisadataminerwhoseanalysistellswhichbrands(e.g.,TVshowsandcompanies)arechattedaboutthemostinsocialmedia.[645][647]MITTechnologyReviewsaidthatBluefingivesTwitterpartoftheUS$72 billiontelevisionadvertisingmarket.[648]
InMay2013,itlaunchedTwitterAmplify—anadvertisingproductformediaandconsumerbrands.[649]WithAmplify,Twitterrunsvideohighlightsfrommajorlivebroadcasts,withadvertisers'namesandmessagesplayingbeforetheclip.[650]InOctober2013,ComcastannouncedthatithadpartneredwithTwittertoimplementits"SeeIt"featurewithintheservice,allowingpostspromotingprogramsonselectedNBCUniversalchannelstocontaindirectlinkstoTVEverywherestreamingtotheprogram.Onlaunch,theconceptwaslimitedtoNBCUniversalchannelsandXfinitycabletelevisionsubscribers.[651]
InanattempttocompetewithTwitter'sleadershipinTV,Facebookintroducedanumberoffeaturesin2013todriveconversationaboutTVincludinghashtags,verifiedprofilesandembeddableposts.ItalsoopenedupnewdatavisualizationAPIsforTVnewsandothermediaoutlets,enablingthemtosearchforawordandseeafirehoseofpublicpoststhatmentionitaswellasshowhowmanypeoplementionedawordinbothpublicandprivatepostsduringasettimeframe,withademographicbreakdownoftheage,gender,andlocationofthesepeople.[652]InJanuary2014,FacebookannouncedapartnershipwithUK-basedsocialTVanalyticscompanySecondSyncwhichsawthesocialnetworkmakeitssocialTVavailableoutsidethecompanyforthefirsttime.FacebookstruckthepartnershiptohelpmarketersunderstandhowpeopleareusingthesocialnetworktotalkabouttopicssuchasTV.[653]However,TwitterrespondedbyacquiringSecondSyncandParisiansocialTVfirmMesagraphthreemonthslater.Theseacquisitions,aswellasapartnershipwithresearchcompanyKantar(whichithadbeenworkingwithtodevelopasuiteofanalyticstoolsfortheBritishTVindustrysinceAugust2013)strengthenedTwitter'sdominanceofthe"secondscreen"–TVviewersusingtabletsandsmartphonestosharetheirTVexperienceonsocialmedia.Withtheadditionalanalytictools,Twitterwasabletoimprovethefirm'sofferingtoadvertisers,allowingthemto,forinstance,onlypromoteatweetontothetimelinesofuserswhowerewatchingacertainprogramme.[654]
ByFebruary2014,allfourmajorU.S.TVnetworkshadsigneduptotheAmplifyprogram,bringingavarietyofpremiumTVcontentontothesocialplatformintheformofin-tweetreal-timevideoclips.[655]InMarch2014,ITVbecamethefirstmajorbroadcasterintheUKtosignuptoTwitterAmplify[656]andTwitterintroducedone-tapvideoplaybackacrossitsmobileappstofurtherenhancetheconsumerexperience.[657]
InJune2014,TwitteracquireditsAmplifypartnerintheU.S.,SnappyTV.[658]InEurope,Twitter'sAmplifypartnerisLondon-basedGrabyo,whichhasalsostrucknumerousdealswithbroadcastersandrightsholders[83]tosharevideocontentacrossFacebookandTwitter.[659]InJuly2017,TwitterannouncedthatitwouldwinddownSnappyTVasaseparatecompany,andintegrateitsfeaturesintotheMediaStudiosuiteonTwitter.[660]
Statistics
Useraccountswithlargefollowerbase
Mainarticle:Listofmost-followedTwitteraccounts
Asof18 February 2022[update],thetenTwitteraccountswiththemostfollowerswere:[661][662]
Rank
Change(monthly)
Accountname
Owner
Followers(millions)
Activity
Country
1
@BarackObama
BarackObama
130
44thU.S.president
USA
2
@justinbieber
JustinBieber
114
Musician
CAN
3
@katyperry
KatyPerry
108
Musician
USA
4
@rihanna
Rihanna
104
Musicianandbusinesswoman
BAR
5
@Cristiano
CristianoRonaldo
97
Footballer
POR
6
@taylorswift13
TaylorSwift
90
Musician
USA
7
@ladygaga
LadyGaga
84
Musicianandactress
USA
8
@TheEllenShow
EllenDeGeneres
77
Comedianandtelevisionhostess
USA
9
@narendramodi
NarendraModi
75
PrimeMinisterofIndia
IND
10
@elonmusk
ElonMusk
74
Entrepreneurandbusinessmagnate
USA CAN RSA
Oldestaccounts
TheoldestTwitteraccountsare14accountsthatbecameactiveonMarch21,2006,allbelongingtoTwitteremployeesatthetimeandincluding@jack(JackDorsey),@biz(BizStone),and@noah(NoahGlass).[663]
Recordtweets
Mainarticle:Listofmost-retweetedtweets
Aselfieorchestratedby86thAcademyAwardshostEllenDeGeneresduringtheMarch2,2014,broadcastwasatthetimethemostretweetedimageever.[664][665]DeGeneressaidshewantedtopayhomagetoMerylStreep'srecord17Oscarnominationsbysettinganewrecordwithher,andinvitedotherOscarcelebritiestojointhem.Theresultingphotooftwelvecelebritiesbrokethepreviousretweetrecordwithinfortyminutes,andwasretweetedover1.8 milliontimesinthefirsthour.[666][667][668]Bytheendoftheceremonyithadbeenretweetedover2 milliontimes;lessthan24hourslater,ithadbeenretweetedover2.8 milliontimes.[665][666]Asof18 March 2014[update],ithasbeenretweetedover3.4 milliontimes.[665]ThegroupselfieeffortwasparodiedbyLego,andMattGroeningwithTheSimpsons.[669][670]Itbeatthepreviousrecord,778,801,whichwasheldbyBarackObama,followinghisvictoryinthe2012presidentialelection.[668][671][672]OnMay9,2017,Ellen'srecordwasbrokenbyCarterWilkerson(@carterjwm)bycollectingnearly3.5 millionretweetsinalittleoveramonth.[673]
AccordingtoGuinnessWorldRecords,thefastestpacetoamillionfollowerswassetbyactorRobertDowneyJr.in23hoursand22minutesinApril2014.[674]ThisrecordwaslaterbrokenbyCaitlynJenner,whojoinedthesiteonJune1,2015,andamassedamillionfollowersinjust4hoursand3minutes.
ThemosttweetedmomentinthehistoryofTwitteroccurredonAugust2,2013;duringaJapanesetelevisionairingoftheStudioGhiblifilmCastleintheSky,fanssimultaneouslytweetedthewordbalse(バルス)—theincantationforadestructionspellusedduringitsclimax,afteritwasutteredinthefilm.Therewasaglobalpeakof143,199tweetsinonesecond,beatingthepreviousrecordof33,388.[675][676]
ThemostdiscussedeventinTwitterhistoryoccurredonOctober24,2015;thehashtag("#ALDubEBTamangPanahon")forTamangPanahon,alivespecialepisodeoftheFilipinovarietyshowEatBulaga!atthePhilippineArena,centeringonitspopularon-aircoupleAlDub,attracted41 milliontweets.[677][678]Themost-discussedsportingeventinTwitterhistorywasthe2014FIFAWorldCupsemi-finalbetweenBrazilandGermanyonJuly8,2014.[679]
Onthedayofthe2016U.S.presidentialelection,Twitterprovedtobethelargestsourceofbreakingnews,withover40 milliontweetssentthatday.[680]
Seealso
Companiesportal
Ambientawareness
Comparisonofmicrobloggingservices
ListofmergersandacquisitionsbyTwitter
Timelineofsocialmedia
Twitterature
Notes
^ItisnotdocumentedwhethertheparallaxscrollingeffectwasaddedwiththeredesigninApril2014orsubsequently.
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