Thalamus - Wikipedia

The thalamus is a large mass of gray matter located in the dorsal part of the diencephalon Nerve fibers project out of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex ... Thalamus FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Partofthebrainresponsibleforrelayingsensorysignalsandtheregulationofconsciousness,sleep,andalertness Thisarticleisabouttheportionofthehumanbrain.FortheBritishvideogamedeveloper,seeThalamusLtd. ThalamusThalamusmarked(MRIcross-section)Thethalamusina360°rotationDetailsPartofDiencephalonPartsSeeListofthalamicnucleiArteryPosteriorcerebralarteryandbranchesIdentifiersLatinthalamusdorsalisMeSHD013788NeuroNames300NeuroLexIDbirnlex_954TA98A14.1.08.101A14.1.08.601TA25678TEE5.14.3.4.2.1.8FMA62007Anatomicaltermsofneuroanatomy[editonWikidata] Thethalamus(fromGreekθάλαμος,"chamber")[1]isalargemassofgraymatterlocatedinthedorsalpartofthediencephalon(adivisionoftheforebrain).Nervefibersprojectoutofthethalamustothecerebralcortexinalldirections,allowinghub-likeexchangesofinformation.Ithasseveralfunctions,suchastherelayingofsensorysignals,includingmotorsignalstothecerebralcortex[2][3]andtheregulationofconsciousness,sleep,andalertness.[4] Anatomically,itisaparamediansymmetricalstructureoftwohalves(leftandright),withinthevertebratebrain,situatedbetweenthecerebralcortexandthemidbrain.Itformsduringembryonicdevelopmentasthemainproductofthediencephalon,asfirstrecognizedbytheSwissembryologistandanatomistWilhelmHisSr.in1893.[5] Contents 1Anatomy 1.1Bloodsupply 1.2Thalamicnuclei 1.3Connections 2Function 3Development 3.1Earlybraindevelopment 3.2Formationofprogenitordomains 3.3Theformationofthemid-diencephalicorganiser(MDO) 3.4Maturationandparcellationofthethalamus 4Clinicalsignificance 5Additionalimages 6Seealso 7References 8Externallinks Anatomy[edit] Thethalamusisapairedstructureofgraymatterlocatedintheforebrainwhichissuperiortothemidbrain,nearthecenterofthebrain,withnervefibersprojectingouttothecerebralcortexinalldirections.Themedialsurfaceofthethalamusconstitutestheupperpartofthelateralwallofthethirdventricle,andisconnectedtothecorrespondingsurfaceoftheoppositethalamusbyaflattenedgrayband,theinterthalamicadhesion.Thelateralpartofthethalamusisthephylogeneticallynewestpartofthethalamus(neothalamus),andincludesthelateralnuclei,thepulvinarandthemedialandlateralgeniculatenuclei.[6][7]Thereareareasofwhitematterinthethalamusincludingthestratumzonalethatcoversthedorsalsurface,andtheexternalandinternalmedullarylaminae.Theexternallaminacoversthelateralsurfaceandtheinternallaminadividesthenucleiintoanterior,medialandlateralgroups.[8] Bloodsupply[edit] Thethalamusderivesitsbloodsupplyfromanumberofarteries:thepolarartery(posteriorcommunicatingartery),paramedianthalamic-subthalamicarteries,inferolateral(thalamogeniculate)arteries,andposterior(medialandlateral)choroidalarteries.[9]Theseareallbranchesoftheposteriorcerebralartery.[10] SomepeoplehavethearteryofPercheron,whichisarareanatomicvariationinwhichasinglearterialtrunkarisesfromtheposteriorcerebralarterytosupplybothpartsofthethalamus. Thalamicnuclei[edit] Seealso:Listofthalamicnuclei Thalamicnuclei.MetathalamuslabelledMTh Nucleiofthethalamus Dorsalview Coronalsectionoflateralandthirdventricles Derivativesofthediencephalonincludethedorsally-locatedepithalamus(essentiallythehabenulaandannexes)andtheperithalamus(prethalamus)containingthezonaincertaandthethalamicreticularnucleus.Duetotheirdifferentontogeneticorigins,theepithalamusandtheperithalamusareformallydistinguishedfromthethalamusproper.Themetathalamusismadeupofthelateralgeniculateandmedialgeniculatenuclei. Thethalamuscomprisesasystemoflamellae(madeupofmyelinatedfibers)separatingdifferentthalamicsubparts.Otherareasaredefinedbydistinctclustersofneurons,suchastheperiventricularnucleus,theintralaminarelements,the"nucleuslimitans",andothers.[11]Theselatterstructures,differentinstructurefromthemajorpartofthethalamus,havebeengroupedtogetherintotheallothalamusasopposedtotheisothalamus.[12]Thisdistinctionsimplifiestheglobaldescriptionofthethalamus. Connections[edit] Thethalamusisconnectedtothespinalcordviathespinothalamictract Thethalamushasmanyconnectionstothehippocampusviathemammillothalamictract,thistractcomprisesthemammillarybodiesandfornix.[13] Thethalamusisconnectedtothecerebralcortexviathethalamocorticalradiations.[14] Thespinothalamictractisasensorypathwayoriginatinginthespinalcord.Ittransmitsinformationtothethalamusaboutpain,temperature,itchandcrudetouch.Therearetwomainparts:thelateralspinothalamictract,whichtransmitspainandtemperature,andtheanterior(orventral)spinothalamictract,whichtransmitscrudetouchandpressure. Function[edit] Thethalamushasmultiplefunctions,generallybelievedtoactasarelaystation,orhub,relayinginformationbetweendifferentsubcorticalareasandthecerebralcortex.[15]Inparticular,everysensorysystem(withtheexceptionoftheolfactorysystem)includesathalamicnucleusthatreceivessensorysignalsandsendsthemtotheassociatedprimarycorticalarea.[citationneeded]Forthevisualsystem,forexample,inputsfromtheretinaaresenttothelateralgeniculatenucleusofthethalamus,whichinturnprojectstothevisualcortexintheoccipitallobe.[citationneeded]Thethalamusisbelievedtobothprocesssensoryinformationaswellasrelayit—eachoftheprimarysensoryrelayareasreceivesstrongfeedbackconnectionsfromthecerebralcortex.[16]Similarlythemedialgeniculatenucleusactsasakeyauditoryrelaybetweentheinferiorcolliculusofthemidbrainandtheprimaryauditorycortex.[citationneeded]Theventralposteriornucleusisakeysomatosensoryrelay,whichsendstouchandproprioceptiveinformationtotheprimarysomatosensorycortex.[citationneeded] Thethalamusalsoplaysanimportantroleinregulatingstatesofsleepandwakefulness.[17]Thalamicnucleihavestrongreciprocalconnectionswiththecerebralcortex,formingthalamo-cortico-thalamiccircuitsthatarebelievedtobeinvolvedwithconsciousness.[18]Thethalamusplaysamajorroleinregulatingarousal,thelevelofawareness,andactivity.Damagetothethalamuscanleadtopermanentcoma.[19] Theroleofthethalamusinthemoreanteriorpallidalandnigralterritoriesinthebasalgangliasystemdisturbancesisrecognizedbutstillpoorlyunderstood.Thecontributionofthethalamustovestibularortotectalfunctionsisalmostignored.Thethalamushasbeenthoughtofasa"relay"thatsimplyforwardssignalstothecerebralcortex.Newerresearchsuggeststhatthalamicfunctionismoreselective.[20]Manydifferentfunctionsarelinkedtovariousregionsofthethalamus.Thisisthecaseformanyofthesensorysystems(exceptfortheolfactorysystem),suchastheauditory,somatic,visceral,gustatoryandvisualsystemswherelocalizedlesionsprovokespecificsensorydeficits.Amajorroleofthethalamusissupportofmotorandlanguagesystems,andmuchofthecircuitryimplicatedforthesesystemsisshared.Thethalamusisfunctionallyconnectedtothehippocampus[21]aspartoftheextendedhippocampalsystematthethalamicanteriornuclei[22]withrespecttospatialmemoryandspatialsensorydatumtheyarecrucialforhumanepisodiceventmemory.[23][24]Thethalamicregion'sconnectiontothemesio-temporallobeprovidedifferentiationofthefunctioningofrecollectiveandfamiliaritymemory.[13] Theneuronalinformationprocessesnecessaryformotorcontrolwereproposedasanetworkinvolvingthethalamusasasubcorticalmotorcenter.[25]Throughinvestigationsoftheanatomyofthebrainsofprimates[26]thenatureoftheinterconnectedtissuesofthecerebellumtothemultiplemotorcorticessuggestedthatthethalamusfulfillsakeyfunctioninprovidingthespecificchannelsfromthebasalgangliaandcerebellumtothecorticalmotorareas.[27][28]Inaninvestigationofthesaccadeandantisaccade[29]motorresponseinthreemonkeys,thethalamicregionswerefoundtobeinvolvedinthegenerationofantisaccadeeye-movement(thatis,theabilitytoinhibitthereflexivejerkingmovementoftheeyesinthedirectionofapresentedstimulus).[30] Recentresearchsuggeststhatthemediodorsalthalamus(MD)mayplayabroaderroleincognition.Specifically,themediodorsalthalamusmay"amplifytheconnectivity(signalingstrength)ofjustthecircuitsinthecortexappropriateforthecurrentcontextandtherebycontributetotheflexibility(ofthemammalianbrain)tomakecomplexdecisionsbywiringthemanyassociationsonwhichdecisionsdependintoweaklyconnectedcorticalcircuits."[31]Researchersfoundthat"enhancingMDactivitymagnifiedtheabilityofmiceto"think,"[31]drivingdownbymorethan25percenttheirerrorrateindecidingwhichconflictingsensorystimulitofollowtofindthereward."[32] Development[edit] Thethalamiccomplexiscomposedoftheperithalamus(orprethalamus,previouslyalsoknownasventralthalamus),themid-diencephalicorganiser(whichformslaterthezonalimitansintrathalamica(ZLI))andthethalamus(dorsalthalamus).[33][34]Thedevelopmentofthethalamuscanbesubdividedintothreesteps.[35] Thethalamusisthelargeststructurederivingfromtheembryonicdiencephalon,theposteriorpartoftheforebrainsituatedbetweenthemidbrainandthecerebrum. Earlybraindevelopment[edit] Afterneurulationtheanlageoftheprethalamusandthethalamusisinducedwithintheneuraltube.Datafromdifferentvertebratemodelorganismssupportamodelinwhichtheinteractionbetweentwotranscriptionfactors,FezandOtx,areofdecisiveimportance.Fezisexpressedintheprethalamus,andfunctionalexperimentsshowthatFezisrequiredforprethalamusformation.[36][37]Posteriorly,Otx1andOtx2abuttheexpressiondomainofFezandarerequiredforproperdevelopmentofthethalamus.[38][39] Formationofprogenitordomains[edit] Earlyinthalamicdevelopmenttwoprogenitordomainsform,acaudaldomain,andarostraldomain.ThecaudaldomaingivesrisetoalloftheglutamatergicneuronsintheadultthalamuswhiletherostraldomaingivesrisetoalloftheGABAergicneuronsintheadultthalamus.[40] Theformationofthemid-diencephalicorganiser(MDO)[edit] AttheinterfacebetweentheexpressiondomainsofFezandOtx,themid-diencephalicorganizer(MDO,alsocalledtheZLIorganiser)isinducedwithinthethalamicanlage.TheMDOisthecentralsignallingorganizerinthethalamus.Alackoftheorganizerleadstotheabsenceofthethalamus.TheMDOmaturesfromventraltodorsalduringdevelopment.Membersofthesonichedgehog(SHH)familyandoftheWntfamilyarethemainprincipalsignalsemittedbytheMDO. Besidesitsimportanceassignallingcenter,theorganizermaturesintothemorphologicalstructureofthezonalimitansintrathalamica(ZLI). Maturationandparcellationofthethalamus[edit] Afteritsinduction,theMDOstartstoorchestratethedevelopmentofthethalamicanlagebyreleaseofsignallingmoleculessuchasSHH.[41]Inmice,thefunctionofsignalingattheMDOhasnotbeenaddresseddirectlyduetoacompleteabsenceofthediencephaloninSHHmutants.[42] StudiesinchickshaveshownthatSHHisbothnecessaryandsufficientforthalamicgeneinduction.[43]Inzebrafish,itwasshownthattheexpressionoftwoSHHgenes,SHH-aandSHH-b(formerlydescribedastwhh)marktheMDOterritory,andthatSHHsignalingissufficientforthemoleculardifferentiationofboththeprethalamusandthethalamusbutisnotrequiredfortheirmaintenanceandSHHsignalingfromtheMDO/alarplateissufficientforthematurationofprethalamicandthalamicterritorywhileventralShhsignalsaredispensable.[44] TheexposuretoSHHleadstodifferentiationofthalamicneurons.SHHsignalingfromtheMDOinducesaposterior-to-anteriorwaveofexpressiontheproneuralgeneNeurogenin1inthemajor(caudal)partofthethalamus,andAscl1(formerlyMash1)intheremainingnarrowstripeofrostralthalamiccellsimmediatelyadjacenttotheMDO,andintheprethalamus.[45][46] ThiszonationofproneuralgeneexpressionleadstothedifferentiationofglutamatergicrelayneuronsfromtheNeurogenin1+precursorsandofGABAergicinhibitoryneuronsfromtheAscl1+precursors.Infish,selectionofthesealternativeneurotransmitterfatesiscontrolledbythedynamicexpressionofHer6thehomologofHES1.Expressionofthishairy-likebHLHtranscriptionfactor,whichrepressesNeurogeninbutisrequiredforAscl1,isprogressivelylostfromthecaudalthalamusbutmaintainedintheprethalamusandinthestripeofrostralthalamiccells.Inaddition,studiesonchickandmicehaveshownthatblockingtheShhpathwayleadstoabsenceoftherostralthalamusandsubstantialdecreaseofthecaudalthalamus.Therostralthalamuswillgiverisetothereticularnucleusmainlywherebythecaudalthalamuswillformtherelaythalamusandwillbefurthersubdividedinthethalamicnuclei.[35] Inhumans,acommongeneticvariationinthepromoterregionoftheserotonintransporter(theSERT-longand-shortallele:5-HTTLPR)hasbeenshowntoaffectthedevelopmentofseveralregionsofthethalamusinadults.Peoplewhoinherittwoshortalleles(SERT-ss)havemoreneuronsandalargervolumeinthepulvinarandpossiblythelimbicregionsofthethalamus.EnlargementofthethalamusprovidesananatomicalbasisforwhypeoplewhoinherittwoSERT-ssallelesaremorevulnerabletomajordepression,post-traumaticstressdisorder,andsuicide.[47] Clinicalsignificance[edit] Athalamusdamagedbyastrokecanleadtothalamicpainsyndrome,[48]whichinvolvesaone-sidedburningorachingsensationoftenaccompaniedbymoodswings.Bilateralischemiaoftheareasuppliedbytheparamedianarterycancauseseriousproblemsincludingakineticmutism,andbeaccompaniedbyoculomotorproblems.Arelatedconceptisthalamocorticaldysrhythmia.TheocclusionofthearteryofPercheroncanleadtoabilateralthalamusinfarction. AlcoholicKorsakoffsyndromestemsfromdamagetothemammillarybody,themammillothalamicfasciculusorthethalamus.[49][50] Fatalfamilialinsomniaisahereditarypriondiseaseinwhichdegenerationofthethalamusoccurs,causingthepatienttograduallylosetheirabilitytosleepandprogressingtoastateoftotalinsomnia,whichinvariablyleadstodeath.Incontrast,damagetothethalamuscanresultincoma. Additionalimages[edit] Humanbraindissection,showingthethalamus. Humanthalamusalongwithothersubcorticalstructures,inglassbrain. Lateralgroupofthethalamicnuclei. Medialgroupofthethalamicnuclei. Seealso[edit] 5-HT7receptor KristaandTatianaHogan-conjoinedtwinswithjoinedthalami Listofregionsinthehumanbrain Nonmotorregionoftheventralnucleargroupofthethalamus Nucleusventralisposteriorlateralisparsoralis(VPLo),aregionofthethalamus Primatebasalgangliasystem Thalamicstimulator Thalamotomy References[edit] ^Harper-index&UniversityofWashingtonFacultyWebServer&Searchenginesearchpage+PerseusProjecttufts.eduRetrieved2012-02-09 ^Sherman,S.(2006)."Thalamus".Scholarpedia.1(9):1583.Bibcode:2006SchpJ...1.1583S.doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.1583. ^Sherman,S.Murray;Guillery,R.W.(2000).ExploringtheThalamus.AcademicPress.pp. 1–18.ISBN 978-0-12-305460-9. ^Gorvett,Zaria."WhatyoucanlearnfromEinstein'squirkyhabits".bbc.com. ^Jones,EdwardG,ed.(1985).TheThalamus-Springer.doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-1749-8.ISBN 978-1-4613-5704-9.S2CID 41337319. ^"MedicalDefinitionofNEOTHALAMUS".www.merriam-webster.com. ^"neothalamus|DefinitionofneothalamusinEnglishbyOxfordDictionaries".OxfordDictionaries|English. 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Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoThalamus. Stainedbrainsliceimageswhichincludethe"thalamus"attheBrainMapsproject vteAnatomyofthediencephalonofthehumanbrainEpithalamusSurface Pinealgland Habenula Habenulartrigone Habenularcommissure Greymatter Pretectalarea Habenularnuclei Subcommissuralorgan ThalamusSurface Striamedullarisofthalamus Thalamicreticularnucleus Taeniathalami Greymatter/nuclei paired:AN Ventral VA/VL VP/VPM/VPL Lateral LD LP Pulvinarnuclei Metathalamus MG LG Pcell Mcell Kcell midline:MD Intralaminar Centromedian Midlinenucleargroup Interthalamicadhesion Whitematter Mammillothalamictract Pallidothalamictracts Ansalenticularis Lenticularfasciculus Thalamicfasciculus PCML Mediallemniscus Trigeminallemniscus Spinothalamictract Laterallemniscus Dentatothalamictract Acousticradiation Opticradiation Subthalamicfasciculus Anteriortrigeminothalamictract Medullarylaminae HypothalamusSurface Medianeminence/Tubercinereum Mammillarybody Infundibulum GreymatterAutonomiczones Anterior(parasympathetic/heatloss) Posterior(sympathetic/heatconservation) Endocrine posteriorpituitary:Paraventricular Magnocellularneurosecretorycell Parvocellularneurosecretorycell Supraoptic oxytocin/vasopressin other:Arcuate(dopamine/GHRH) Preoptic(GnRH) Suprachiasmatic(melatonin) Emotion Lateral Ventromedial Dorsomedial Whitematter afferent Striaterminalis Medialforebrainbundle Retinohypothalamictract efferent Mammillothalamictract Dorsallongitudinalfasciculus Pituitary Posteriorisdiencephalon,butanteriorisglandular Subthalamus Subthalamicnucleus Zonaincerta Nucleicampiperizonalis(FieldsofForel) vteBrainandspinalcord:neuraltractsandfasciculiSensoryDCML1°: Paciniancorpuscle/Meissner'scorpuscle→Posteriorcolumn(Gracilefasciculus/Cuneatefasciculus)→Gracilenucleus/Cuneatenucleus 2°: →sensorydecussation/arcuatefibers(Posteriorexternalarcuatefibers,Internalarcuatefibers)→Mediallemniscus/Trigeminallemniscus→Thalamus(VPL,VPM) 3°: →Posteriorlimbofinternalcapsule→Postcentralgyrus Anterolateral/painFast/lateral 1°(Freenerveending→Adeltafiber)→2°(Anteriorwhitecommissure→LateralandAnteriorSpinothalamictract→Spinallemniscus→VPLofThalamus)→3°(Postcentralgyrus)→4°(Posteriorparietalcortex) 2°(Spinomesencephalictract→SuperiorcolliculusofMidbraintectum) Slow/medial 1°(GroupCnervefiber→Spinoreticulartract→Reticularformation)→2°(MDofThalamus)→3°(Cingulatecortex) MotorPyramidal flexion:Primarymotorcortex→Posteriorlimbofinternalcapsule→Decussationofpyramids→Corticospinaltract(Lateral,Anterior)→Neuromuscularjunction Extrapyramidalflexion: Primarymotorcortex→Genuofinternalcapsule→Corticobulbartract→Facialmotornucleus→Facialmuscles flexion: Rednucleus→Rubrospinaltract extension: Vestibulocerebellum→Vestibularnuclei→Vestibulospinaltract extension: Vestibulocerebellum→Reticularformation→Reticulospinaltract Midbraintectum→Tectospinaltract→musclesofneck Basalgangliadirect:1°(Motorcortex→Striatum)→2°(GPi)→3°(Lenticularfasciculus/Ansalenticularis→Thalamicfasciculus→VLofThalamus)→4°(Thalamocorticalradiations→Supplementarymotorarea)→5°(Motorcortex)indirect:1°(Motorcortex→Striatum)→2°(GPe)→3°(Subthalamicfasciculus→Subthalamicnucleus)→4°(Subthalamicfasciculus→GPi)→5°(Lenticularfasciculus/Ansalenticularis→Thalamicfasciculus→VLofThalamus)→6°(Thalamocorticalradiations→Supplementarymotorarea)→7°(Motorcortex)nigrostriatalpathway: Parscompacta→Striatum CerebellarAfferent Vestibularnuclei→Vestibulocerebellartract→ICP→Cerebellum→Granulecell Pontinenuclei→Pontocerebellarfibers→MCP→Deepcerebellarnuclei→Granulecell Inferiorolivarynucleus→Olivocerebellartract→ICP→Hemisphere→Purkinjecell→Deepcerebellarnuclei Efferent DentatenucleusinLateralhemisphere/pontocerebellum→SCP→Dentatothalamictract→Thalamus(VL)→Motorcortex InterposednucleusinIntermediatehemisphere/spinocerebellum→SCP→Reticularformation,or→Cerebellothalamictract→Rednucleus→Thalamus(VL)→Motorcortex FastigialnucleusinFlocculonodularlobe/vestibulocerebellum→Vestibulocerebellartract→Vestibularnuclei Bidirectional:SpinocerebellarUnconsciousproprioception lowerlimb→1°(musclespindles→DRG)→2°(Posteriorthoracicnucleus→Dorsal/posteriorspinocerebellartract→ICP→Cerebellarvermis) upperlimb→1°(musclespindles→DRG)→2°(Accessorycuneatenucleus→Cuneocerebellartract→ICP→Anteriorlobeofcerebellum) Reflexarc lowerlimb→1°(Golgitendonorgan)→2°(Ventral/anteriorspinocerebellartract→SCP→Cerebellarvermis) upperlimb→1°(Golgitendonorgan)→2°(Rostralspinocerebellartract→ICP→Cerebellum) AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries France(data) Israel UnitedStates Scientificdatabases TerminologiaAnatomica 2 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thalamus&oldid=1083877868" 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