Military - Wikipedia

A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized ... Military FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Organizationprimarilytaskedwithpreparingforandconductingwar Forthefilm,seeMilitary(film). "Armedforces"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeArmedforces(disambiguation). Thisarticlehasmultipleissues.Pleasehelpimproveitordiscusstheseissuesonthetalkpage.(Learnhowandwhentoremovethesetemplatemessages) Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Military" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(August2008)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thisarticleincludesalistofgeneralreferences,butitlackssufficientcorrespondinginlinecitations.Pleasehelptoimprovethisarticlebyintroducingmoreprecisecitations.(September2013)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) (Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) NATOmilitaryceremony,Pabrade,LithuaniainNovember2014 Amilitary,alsoknowncollectivelyasarmedforces,isaheavilyarmed,highlyorganizedforceprimarilyintendedforwarfare.Itistypicallyauthorizedandmaintainedbyasovereignstate,withitsmembersidentifiablebytheirdistinctmilitaryuniform.Itmayconsistofoneormoremilitarybranchessuchasanarmy,navy,airforce,spaceforce,marines,orcoastguard.Themaintaskofthemilitaryisusuallydefinedasdefenceofthestateanditsinterestsagainstexternalarmedthreats. Inbroadusage,thetermsarmedforcesandmilitaryareoftentreatedassynonymous,althoughintechnicalusageadistinctionissometimesmadeinwhichacountry'sarmedforcesmayincludebothitsmilitaryandotherparamilitaryforces.Therearevariousformsofirregularmilitaryforces,notbelongingtoarecognizedstate;thoughtheysharemanyattributeswithregularmilitaryforces,theyarelessoftenreferredtoassimplymilitary. Countriesbynumberofactivesoldiers(2009) Anation'smilitarymayfunctionasadiscretesocialsubculture,withdedicatedinfrastructuresuchasmilitaryhousing,schools,utilities,logistics,hospitals,legalservices,foodproduction,finance,andbankingservices.Beyondwarfare,themilitarymaybeemployedinadditionalsanctionedandnon-sanctionedfunctionswithinthestate,includinginternalsecuritythreats,populationcontrol,thepromotionofapoliticalagenda,emergencyservicesandreconstruction,protectingcorporateeconomicinterests,socialceremoniesandnationalhonourguards.[1] Theprofessionofsoldieringaspartofamilitaryisolderthanrecordedhistoryitself.[2]Someofthemostenduringimagesofclassicalantiquityportraythepowerandfeatsofitsmilitaryleaders.TheBattleofKadeshin1274BCwasoneofthedefiningpointsofPharaohRamsesII'sreign,andhismonumentscommemorateitinbas-relief.Athousandyearslater,thefirstemperorofunifiedChina,QinShiHuang,wassodeterminedtoimpressthegodswithhismilitarymightthathehadhimselfburiedwithanarmyofterracottasoldiers.[3] TheRomanspaidconsiderableattentiontomilitarymatters,leavingtoposteritymanytreatisesandwritingsonthesubject,aswellasmanylavishlycarvedtriumphalarchesandvictorycolumns. PartofaseriesonWar History Prehistoric Ancient Post-classical Earlymodern Latemodern industrial fourth-gen Battlespace Aerospace Air Airborne Space Land Cold-region Desert Jungle Mountain Urban Sea Amphibious Blue Brown Green Surface Underwater Subterranean Tunnel Cyber Information Weapons Armor Artillery Barrage Biological Camouflage Cavalry Chemical Class Combinedarms Conventional Cyber Denial Disinformation Drone Electronic Infantry Lawfare Loitering Music Nuclear Psychological Radiological Unconventional TacticsListofmilitarytactics Aerial Battle Cavalry Charge Counterattack Counterinsurgency Defeatindetail Foxhole Envelopment Guerrilla Morale Rapiddominance Siege Swarming Tacticalobjective Targetsaturation Trench Withdrawal Operational Militaryoperation Operationsresearch Blitzkrieg Expeditionary Deepoperation Maneuver Operationalmanoeuvregroup StrategyListofmilitarystrategiesandconcepts Militarycampaign Attrition Counter-offensive Culminating Defenceindepth Fabian Mosaic Deception Defensive Depth Goal Naval Offensive Scorchedearth Grandstrategy Asymmetric Broken-backed Coldwar Colonial Conquest Containment Economic Endemic Irregular Liberation Limited Network-centric Perpetual Political Princely Proxy Religious Resource Strategic Succession Technology Theater Totalwar Worldwar Administrative Branch Policy Staff Training Service Sociology Organization Chainofcommand Commandandcontrol Doctrine Engineers Intelligence Ranks Technologyandequipment Personnel Militaryrecruitment Conscription Recruittraining Militaryspecialism Womeninthemilitary Childreninthemilitary Transgenderpeopleandmilitaryservice Sexualharassmentinthemilitary Conscientiousobjector Counter-recruitment Logistics Military–industrialcomplex Armsindustry Materiel Supply-chainmanagement Mainoperatingbase Forwardoperatingbase Outpost Science Powerprojection LossofStrengthGradient Law Court-martial GenevaConventions GenevaProtocol Justice Perfidy Rulesofengagement Martiallaw Warcrime Theory Airsupremacy Commandofthesea Full-spectrumdominance Overmatch UnrestrictedWarfare Related Outlineofwar Justwartheory Principlesofwar Philosophyofwar Warfilm Militarysciencefiction Wargame Lanchester'slaws Securitydilemma Tripwireforce Mercenary Warnovel Womeninwar Warstudies Wartimesexualviolence Lists Battles Militaryoccupations Militarytactics Operations Sieges Warcrimes Wars Weapons Writers vte Contents 1Etymologyanddefinitions 2History 3Organization 3.1Personnelandunits 3.1.1Rankandrole 3.1.2Recruitment 3.1.3Obligations 3.1.4Training 3.2Intelligence 3.3Economics 3.4Capabilitydevelopment 3.5Science 3.6Logistics 4Incombat 4.1Strategicvictory 4.2Operationalvictory 4.3Tacticalvictory 5Technology 6Aspartofsociety 6.1Ideologyandethics 7Seealso 8References 9Externallinks Etymologyanddefinitions DepictionofancientEgyptianmilitaryformation ThefirstrecordeduseofthewordmilitaryinEnglish,spelledmilitarie,wasin1582.[4]ItcomesfromtheLatinmilitaris(fromLatinmiles,meaning"soldier")throughFrench,butisofuncertainetymology,onesuggestionbeingderivedfrom*mil-it-–goinginabodyormass.[5][6] Asanoun,themilitaryusuallyrefersgenerallytoacountry'sarmedforces,orsometimes,morespecifically,totheseniorofficerswhocommandthem.[4][7]Ingeneral,itreferstothephysicalityofarmedforces,theirpersonnel,equipment,andthephysicalareawhichtheyoccupy. Asanadjective,militaryoriginallyreferredonlytosoldiersandsoldiering,butitsoonbroadenedtoapplytolandforcesingeneral,andanythingtodowiththeirprofession.[4]ThenamesofboththeRoyalMilitaryAcademy(1741)andUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy(1802)reflectthis.However,ataboutthetimeoftheNapoleonicWars,'military'begantobeusedinreferencetoarmedforcesasawhole,suchas'militaryservice','militaryintelligence',and'militaryhistory'.Assuch,itnowconnotesanyactivityperformedbyarmedforcepersonnel.[4] History Mainarticle:Militaryhistory AnAncientGreekwarriordemonstratestheeffectivenessofcontemporaryphysicaltrainingregimes.RiaceBronzes,c.450BC Militaryhistoryisoftenconsideredtobethehistoryofallconflicts,notjustthehistoryofthestatemilitaries.Itdifferssomewhatfromthehistoryofwar,withmilitaryhistoryfocusingonthepeopleandinstitutionsofwar-making,whilethehistoryofwarfocusesontheevolutionofwaritselfinthefaceofchangingtechnology,governments,andgeography. Militaryhistoryhasanumberoffacets.Onemainfacetistolearnfrompastaccomplishmentsandmistakes,soastomoreeffectivelywagewarinthefuture.Anotheristocreateasenseofmilitarytradition,whichisusedtocreatecohesivemilitaryforces.Still,anothermaybetolearntopreventwarsmoreeffectively.Humanknowledgeaboutthemilitaryislargelybasedonbothrecordedandoralhistoryofmilitaryconflicts(war),theirparticipatingarmiesandnaviesand,morerecently,airforces.[8] Organization Furtherinformation:Militaryorganization Anexampleofmilitarycommand;amapoftheUnitedStates'UnifiedCombatantCommand'sareaofresponsibility. Personnelandunits Mainarticle:Militarypersonnel Seealso:MilitaryreserveandMilitaryservice Despitethegrowingimportanceofmilitarytechnology,militaryactivitydependsaboveallonpeople.Forexample,in2000theBritishArmydeclared:"Manisstillthefirstweaponofwar."[9] Rankandrole Themilitaryorganizationischaracterizedbyastrictcommandhierarchydividedbymilitaryrank,withranksnormallygrouped(indescendingorderofauthority)asofficers(e.g.Colonel),non-commissionedofficers(e.g.Sergeant),andpersonnelatthelowestrank(e.g.PrivateSoldier).Whileseniorofficersmakestrategicdecisions,subordinatedmilitarypersonnel(soldiers,sailors,marines,orairmen)fulfilthem.Althoughranktitlesvarybymilitarybranchandcountry,therankhierarchyiscommontoallstatearmedforcesworldwide. Inadditiontotheirrank,personneloccupyoneofmanytraderoles,whichareoftengroupedaccordingtothenatureoftherole'smilitarytasksoncombatoperations:combatroles(e.g.infantry),combatsupportroles(e.g.combatengineers),andcombatservicesupportroles(e.g.logisticalsupport). Inthepast,thearmedforcesofsomeCommuniststates,suchastheSovietUnion,ChinaandAlbania,haveattemptedtoabolishmilitaryranks,buttheywerelaterreintroducedduetooperationaldifficultiesrelatingtocommandandcontrol. Recruitment Mainarticle:Militaryrecruitment Personnelmayberecruitedorconscripted,dependingonthesystemchosenbythestate.Mostmilitarypersonnelaremales;theminorityproportionoffemalepersonnelvariesinternationally(approximately3%inIndia,[10]10%intheUK,[11]13%inSweden,[12]16%intheUS,[13]and27%inSouthAfrica[14]).Whiletwo-thirdsofstatesnowrecruitorconscriptonlyadults,asof201750statesstillreliedpartlyonchildrenundertheageof18(usuallyaged16or17)tostafftheirarmedforces.[15] Whereasrecruitswhojoinasofficerstendtobeupwardly-mobile,[16][17]mostenlistedpersonnelhaveachildhoodbackgroundofrelativesocio-economicdeprivation.[18][19][20] Forexample,aftertheUSsuspendedconscriptionin1973,"themilitarydisproportionatelyattractedAfricanAmericanmen,menfromlower-statussocioeconomicbackgrounds,menwhohadbeeninnonacademichighschoolprograms,andmenwhosehighschoolgradestendedtobelow".[16]However,astudyreleasedin2020onthesocio-economicbackgroundsofU.S.ArmedForcespersonnelsuggeststhattheyareatparityorslightlyhigherthanthecivilianpopulationwithrespecttosocio-economicindicatorssuchasparentalincome,parentalwealthandcognitiveabilities.Thestudyfoundthattechnological,tactical,operationalanddoctrinalchangeshaveledtoachangeinthedemandforpersonnel.Furthermore,thestudysuggeststhatthemostdisadvantagedsocio-economicgroupsarelesslikelytomeettherequirementsofthemodernU.S.military.[21] Obligations Mainarticle:Militaryrecruitment Theobligationsofmilitaryemploymentaremany.Full-timemilitaryemploymentnormallyrequiresaminimumperiodofserviceofseveralyears;betweentwoandsixyearsistypicalofarmedforcesinAustralia,theUKandtheUS,forexample,dependingonrole,branch,andrank.[22][23][24]Somearmedforcesallowashortdischargewindow,normallyduringtraining,whenrecruitsmayleavethearmedforceasofright.[25]Alternatively,part-timemilitaryemployment,knownasreserveservice,allowsarecruittomaintainacivilianjobwhiletrainingundermilitarydisciplineatweekends;heorshemaybecalledouttodeployonoperationstosupplementthefull-timepersonnelcomplement.Afterleavingthearmedforces,recruitsmayremainliableforcompulsoryreturntofull-timemilitaryemploymentinordertotrainordeployonoperations.[25][24] Militarylawintroducesoffencesnotrecognisedbyciviliancourts,suchasabsencewithoutleave(AWOL),desertion,politicalacts,malingering,behavingdisrespectfully,anddisobedience(see,forexample,offencesagainstmilitarylawintheUnitedKingdom).[26]Penaltiesrangefromasummaryreprimandtoimprisonmentforseveralyearsfollowingacourtmartial.[26]Certainfundamentalrightsarealsorestrictedorsuspended,includingthefreedomofassociation(e.g.unionorganizing)andfreedomofspeech(speakingtothemedia).[26]Militarypersonnelinsomecountrieshavearightofconscientiousobjectioniftheybelieveanorderisimmoralorunlawful,orcannotingoodconsciencecarryitout. Personnelmaybepostedtobasesintheirhomecountryoroverseas,accordingtooperationalneed,andmaybedeployedfromthosebasesonexercisesoroperationsanywhereintheworld.Duringpeacetime,whenmilitarypersonnelaregenerallystationedingarrisonsorotherpermanentmilitaryfacilities,theymostlyconductadministrativetasks,trainingandeducationactivities,technologymaintenance,andrecruitment. Training FinnishandAmericansoldierstraintogetherinarcticconditionsinLapland,Finland,aspartofColdWeatherBasicOperationCourse,January6–16,2015 Mainarticle:Recruittraining Initialtrainingconditionsrecruitsforthedemandsofmilitarylife,includingpreparednesstoinjureandkillotherpeople,andtofacemortaldangerwithoutfleeing.Itisaphysicallyandpsychologicallyintensiveprocesswhichresocializesrecruitsfortheuniquenatureofmilitarydemands.Forexample: Individualityissuppressed(e.g.byshavingtheheadofnewrecruits,issuinguniforms,denyingprivacy,andprohibitingtheuseoffirstnames);[27][28] Dailyroutineistightlycontrolled(e.g.recruitsmustmaketheirbeds,polishboots,andstacktheirclothesinacertainway,andmistakesarepunished);[29][28] Continuousstressorsdepletepsychologicalresistancetothedemandsoftheirinstructors(e.g.deprivingrecruitsofsleep,food,orshelter,shoutinginsultsandgivingordersintendedtohumiliate)[30][28][29] Frequentpunishmentsservetoconditiongroupconformityanddiscouragepoorperformance;[28] Thedisciplineddrillinstructorispresentedasarolemodeloftheidealsoldier.[31] Intelligence Mainarticle:Militaryintelligence Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thenextrequirementcomesasafairlybasicneedforthemilitarytoidentifypossiblethreatsitmaybecalledupontoface.Forthispurpose,someofthecommandingforcesandothermilitary,aswellasoftencivilianpersonnelparticipateinidentificationofthesethreats.Thisisatonceanorganization,asystemandaprocesscollectivelycalledmilitaryintelligence(MI). Thedifficultyinusingmilitaryintelligenceconceptsandmilitaryintelligencemethodsisinthenatureofthesecrecyoftheinformationtheyseek,andtheclandestinenaturethatintelligenceoperativesworkinobtainingwhatmaybeplansforaconflictescalation,initiationofcombat,oraninvasion. Animportantpartofthemilitaryintelligenceroleisthemilitaryanalysisperformedtoassessmilitarycapabilityofpotentialfutureaggressors,andprovidecombatmodellingthathelpstounderstandfactorsonwhichcomparisonofforcescanbemade.Thishelpstoquantifyandqualifysuchstatementsas:"ChinaandIndiamaintainthelargestarmedforcesintheWorld"orthat"theU.S.Militaryisconsideredtobetheworld'sstrongest".[32] Guerrillastructure Althoughsomegroupsengagedincombat,suchasmilitantsorresistancemovements,refertothemselvesusingmilitaryterminology,notably'Army'or'Front',nonehavehadthestructureofanationalmilitarytojustifythereference,andusuallyhavehadtorelyonsupportofoutsidenationalmilitaries.TheyalsousethesetermstoconcealfromtheMItheirtruecapabilities,andtoimpresspotentialideologicalrecruits. Havingmilitaryintelligencerepresentativesparticipateintheexecutionofthenationaldefencepolicyisimportant,becauseitbecomesthefirstrespondentandcommentatoronthepolicyexpectedstrategicgoal,comparedtotherealitiesofidentifiedthreats.Whentheintelligencereportingiscomparedtothepolicy,itbecomespossibleforthenationalleadershiptoconsiderallocatingresourcesoverandabovetheofficersandtheirsubordinatesmilitarypay,andtheexpenseofmaintainingmilitaryfacilitiesandmilitarysupportservicesforthem. Economics Mainarticle:Militarybudget MilitaryBudget2021(inUSDbillions) Country MilitaryBudget UnitedStates 778.0 China 252.0 India 72.9 Russia 61.7 UnitedKingdom 59.2 SaudiArabia 57.5 Germany 52.8 France 52.7 Japan 49.1 SouthKorea 45.7 Italy 28.9 Australia 27.5 Canada 22.8 Israel 21.7 Brazil 19.7 Source:SIPRI[33] Defenseeconomicsisthefinancialandmonetaryeffortsmadetoresourceandsustainmilitaries,andtofinancemilitaryoperations,includingwar. Theprocessofallocatingresourcesisconductedbydeterminingamilitarybudget,whichisadministeredbyamilitaryfinanceorganizationwithinthemilitary.Militaryprocurementisthenauthorizedtopurchaseorcontractprovisionofgoodsandservicestothemilitary,whetherinpeacetimeatapermanentbase,orinacombatzonefromlocalpopulation. MapofmilitaryexpendituresasapercentageofGDPbycountry,2017.[34][needsupdate] Apiechartshowingglobalmilitaryexpendituresbycountryfor2019,inUS$billions,accordingtoSIPRI Militaryexpenditureof2014inUSD Capabilitydevelopment Capabilitydevelopment,whichisoftenreferredtoasthemilitary'strength',isarguablyoneofthemostcomplexactivitiesknowntohumanity;becauseitrequiresdetermining:strategic,operational,andtacticalcapabilityrequirementstocountertheidentifiedthreats;strategic,operational,andtacticaldoctrinesbywhichtheacquiredcapabilitieswillbeused;identifyingconcepts,methods,andsystemsinvolvedinexecutingthedoctrines;creatingdesignspecificationsforthemanufacturerswhowouldproducetheseinadequatequantityandqualityfortheiruseincombat;purchasetheconcepts,methods,andsystems;createaforcesstructurethatwouldusetheconcepts,methods,andsystemsmosteffectivelyandefficiently;integratetheseconcepts,methods,andsystemsintotheforcestructurebyprovidingmilitaryeducation,training,andpracticethatpreferablyresemblescombatenvironmentofintendeduse;createmilitarylogisticssystemstoallowcontinuedanduninterruptedperformanceofmilitaryorganizationsundercombatconditions,includingprovisionofhealthservicestothepersonnel,andmaintenancefortheequipment;theservicestoassistrecoveryofwoundedpersonnel,andrepairofdamagedequipment;andfinally,post-conflictdemobilization,anddisposalofwarstockssurplustopeacetimerequirements. Developmentofmilitarydoctrineisperhapsthemostimportantofallcapabilitydevelopmentactivities,becauseitdetermineshowmilitaryforcesareusedinconflicts,theconceptsandmethodsusedbythecommandtoemployappropriatelymilitaryskilled,armedandequippedpersonnelinachievementofthetangiblegoalsandobjectivesofthewar,campaign,battle,engagement,andaction.[35]Thelinebetweenstrategyandtacticsisnoteasilyblurred,althoughdecidingwhichisbeingdiscussedhadsometimesbeenamatterofpersonaljudgementbysomecommentators,andmilitaryhistorians.Theuseofforcesattheleveloforganizationbetweenstrategicandtacticaliscalledoperationalmobility. Science Mainarticle:Militarytechnology Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Becausemostoftheconceptsandmethodsusedbythemilitary,andmanyofitssystemsarenotfoundincommercialbranches,muchofthematerialisresearched,designed,developed,andofferedforinclusioninarsenalsbymilitaryscienceorganizationswithintheoverallstructureofthemilitary.Militaryscientistsarethereforefound[bywhom?]tointeractwithallArmsandServicesofthearmedforces,andatalllevelsofthemilitaryhierarchyofcommand. Althoughconcernedwithresearchintomilitarypsychology,particularlycombatstressandhowitaffecttroopmorale,oftenthebulkofmilitaryscienceactivitiesisdirectedatmilitaryintelligencetechnology,militarycommunications,andimprovingmilitarycapabilitythroughresearch.Thedesign,development,andprototypingofweapons,militarysupportequipment,andmilitarytechnologyingeneral,isalsoanareainwhichmucheffortisinvested–itincludeseverythingfromglobalcommunicationnetworksandaircraftcarrierstopaintandfood. Logistics Mainarticle:Militarylogistics Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) TheKawasakiC-1isatacticalmilitarytransportoftheJapanAirSelf-DefenseForce RedBallExpressconvoyinFrance Possessingmilitarycapabilityisnotsufficientifthiscapabilitycannotbedeployedfor,andemployedincombatoperations.Toachievethis,militarylogisticsareusedforthelogisticsmanagementandlogisticsplanningoftheforcesmilitarysupplychainmanagement,theconsumables,andcapitalequipmentofthetroops. Althoughmostlyconcernedwiththemilitarytransport,asameansofdeliveryusingdifferentmodesoftransport;frommilitarytrucks,tocontainershipsoperatingfrompermanentmilitarybase,italsoinvolvescreatingfieldsupplydumpsattherearofthecombatzone,andevenforwardsupplypointsinspecificunit'sTacticalAreaofResponsibility. Thesesupplypointsarealsousedtoprovidemilitaryengineeringservices,suchastherecoveryofdefectiveandderelictvehiclesandweapons,maintenanceofweaponsinthefield,therepairandfieldmodificationofweaponsandequipment;andinpeacetime,thelife-extensionprogrammesundertakentoallowcontinueduseofequipment.Oneofthemostimportantroleoflogisticsisthesupplyofmunitionsasaprimarytypeofconsumable,theirstorage,anddisposal. Incombat Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Theprimaryreasonfortheexistenceofthemilitaryistoengageincombat,shoulditberequiredtodosobythenationaldefencepolicy,andtowin.Thisrepresentsanorganisationalgoalofanymilitary,andtheprimaryfocusformilitarythoughtthroughmilitaryhistory.Howvictoryisachieved,andwhatshapeitassumes,isstudiedbymost,ifnotall,militarygroupsonthreelevels. Strategicvictory Mainarticle:Strategicvictory Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) TheMarathaNavy,whichisconsideredtobethefoundationofthemodernIndianNavy,oftenemployedlandandseacoordinationtacticswhenattacking,whichwonthemmanybattlesagainsttheMughalsandPortuguese Militarystrategyisthemanagementofforcesinwarsandmilitarycampaignsbyacommander-in-chief,employinglargemilitaryforces,eithernationalandalliedasawhole,orthecomponentelementsofarmies,naviesandairforces;suchasarmygroups,navalfleets,andlargenumbersofaircraft.Militarystrategyisalong-termprojectionofbelligerents'policy,withabroadviewofoutcomeimplications,includingoutsidetheconcernsofmilitarycommand.Militarystrategyismoreconcernedwiththesupplyofwarandplanning,thanmanagementoffieldforcesandcombatbetweenthem.Thescopeofstrategicmilitaryplanningcanspanweeks,butismoreoftenmonthsorevenyears.[35] Operationalvictory Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) DutchcivilianscelebratingthearrivaloftheICanadianCorpsinUtrechtastheCanadianArmyliberatestheNetherlandsfromNazioccupation Operationalmobilityis,withinwarfareandmilitarydoctrine,thelevelofcommandwhichcoordinatestheminutedetailsoftacticswiththeoverarchinggoalsofstrategy.Acommonsynonymisoperationalart. Theoperationallevelisatascalebiggerthanonewherelineofsightandthetimeofdayareimportant,andsmallerthanthestrategiclevel,whereproductionandpoliticsareconsiderations.Formationsareoftheoperationalleveliftheyareabletoconductoperationsontheirown,andareofsufficientsizetobedirectlyhandledorhaveasignificantimpactatthestrategiclevel.ThisconceptwaspioneeredbytheGermanarmypriortoandduringtheSecondWorldWar.Atthislevel,planninganddurationofactivitiestakesfromoneweektoamonth,andareexecutedbyFieldArmiesandArmyCorpsandtheirnavalandairequivalents.[35] Tacticalvictory Mainarticle:Tacticalvictory Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Militarytacticsconcernsitselfwiththemethodsforengaginganddefeatingtheenemyindirectcombat.Militarytacticsareusuallyusedbyunitsoverhoursordays,andarefocusedonthespecific,closeproximitytasksandobjectivesofsquadrons,companies,battalions,regiments,brigades,anddivisions,andtheirnavalandairforceequivalents.[35] OneoftheoldestmilitarypublicationsisTheArtofWar,bytheChinesephilosopherSunTzu.[36]Writteninthe6thcenturyBCE,the13-chapterbookisintendedasmilitaryinstruction,andnotasmilitarytheory,buthashadahugeinfluenceonAsianmilitarydoctrine,andfromthelate19thcentury,onEuropeanandUnitedStatesmilitaryplanning.Ithasevenbeenusedtoformulatebusinesstactics,andcanevenbeappliedinsocialandpoliticalareas.[where?] BattleformationandtacticsofMacedon[37] TheClassicalGreeksandtheRomanswroteprolificallyonmilitarycampaigning.Amongthebest-knownRomanworksareJuliusCaesar'scommentariesontheGallicWars,andtheRomanCivilwar–writtenabout50BC. TwomajorworksontacticscomefromthelateRomanperiod:TaktikeTheoriabyAelianusTacticus,andDeReMilitari('Onmilitarymatters')byVegetius.TaktikeTheoriaexaminedGreekmilitarytactics,andwasmostinfluentialintheByzantineworldandduringtheGoldenAgeofIslam. DeReMilitariformedthebasisofEuropeanmilitarytacticsuntilthelate17thcentury.PerhapsitsmostenduringmaximisIgiturquidesideratpacem,praeparetbellum(lethewhodesirespeaceprepareforwar). DuetothechangingnatureofcombatwiththeintroductionofartilleryintheEuropeanMiddleAges,andinfantryfirearmsintheRenaissance,attemptsweremadetodefineandidentifythosestrategies,grandtactics,andtacticsthatwouldproduceavictorymoreoftenthanthatachievedbytheRomansinprayingtothegodsbeforethebattle. Laterthisbecameknownasmilitaryscience,andlaterstill,wouldadoptthescientificmethodapproachtotheconductofmilitaryoperationsundertheinfluenceoftheIndustrialRevolutionthinking.InhisseminalbookOnWar,thePrussianMajor-Generalandleadingexpertonmodernmilitarystrategy,CarlvonClausewitzdefinedmilitarystrategyas'theemploymentofbattlestogaintheendofwar'.[38]AccordingtoClausewitz: strategyformstheplanoftheWar,andtothisenditlinkstogethertheseriesofactswhicharetoleadtothefinaldecision,thatistosay,itmakestheplansfortheseparatecampaignsandregulatesthecombatstobefoughtineach.[39] Hence,Clausewitzplacedpoliticalaimsabovemilitarygoals,ensuringciviliancontrolofthemilitary.Militarystrategywasoneofatriumvirateof'arts'or'sciences'thatgovernedtheconductofwarfare,theothersbeing:militarytactics,theexecutionofplansandmanoeuvringofforcesinbattle,andmaintenanceofanarmy. Themeaningofmilitarytacticshaschangedovertime;fromthedeploymentandmanoeuvringofentirelandarmiesonthefieldsofancientbattles,andgalleyfleets;tomodernuseofsmallunitambushes,encirclements,bombardmentattacks,frontalassaults,airassaults,hit-and-runtacticsusedmainlybyguerrillaforces,and,insomecases,suicideattacksonlandandatsea.Evolutionofaerialwarfareintroduceditsownaircombattactics.Often,militarydeception,intheformofmilitarycamouflageormisdirectionusingdecoys,isusedtoconfusetheenemyasatactic. Amajordevelopmentininfantrytacticscamewiththeincreaseduseoftrenchwarfareinthe19thand20thcenturies.ThiswasmainlyemployedinWorldWarIintheGallipolicampaign,andtheWesternFront.Trenchwarfareoftenturnedtoastalemate,onlybrokenbyalargelossoflife,because,inordertoattackanenemyentrenchment,soldiershadtorunthroughanexposed'noman'sland'underheavyfirefromtheiropposingentrenchedenemy. Technology Mainarticle:Militarytechnology Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(October2014)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Arrow-head.Bronze,4thcenturyBC.FromOlynthus,Chalcidice. Aswithanyoccupation,sincetheancienttimes,themilitaryhasbeendistinguishedfromothermembersofthesocietybytheirtools,themilitaryweapons,andmilitaryequipmentusedincombat.WhenStoneAgehumansfirsttookasliverofflinttotipthespear,itwasthefirstexampleofapplyingtechnologytoimprovetheweapon. Sincethen,theadvancesmadebyhumansocieties,andthatofweapons,hasbeenirretrievablylinked.StoneweaponsgavewaytoBronzeAgeweapons,andlater,theIronAgeweapons.Witheachtechnologicalchange,wasrealizedsometangibleincreaseinmilitarycapability,suchasthroughgreatereffectivenessofasharperedgeindefeatingleatherarmour,orimproveddensityofmaterialsusedinmanufactureofweapons. Onland,thefirstreallysignificanttechnologicaladvanceinwarfarewasthedevelopmentoftherangedweapons,andnotably,thesling.Thenextsignificantadvancecamewiththedomesticationofthehorsesandmasteringofequestrianism. Mountedandfootarmouredknights.Armourandcavalrydominatedthebattlefield,untiltheinventionoffirearms. Arguably,thegreatestinventionthataffectednotjustthemilitary,butallsociety,afteradoptionoffire,wasthewheel,anditsuseintheconstructionofthechariot.Therewerenoadvancesinmilitarytechnology,until,fromthemechanicalarmactionofaslinger,theGreeks,Egyptians,Romans,Persians,Chinese,etc.,developedthesiegeengines.Thebowwasmanufacturedinincreasinglylargerandmorepowerfulversions,toincreaseboththeweaponrange,andarmourpenetrationperformance.Thesedevelopedintothepowerfulcompositeandrecurvebows,andcrossbowsofAncientChina.Theseprovedparticularlyusefulduringtheriseofcavalry,ashorsemenencasedinever-moresophisticatedarmourcametodominatethebattlefield. Somewhatearlier,inmedievalChina,gunpowderhadbeeninvented,andwasincreasinglyusedbythemilitaryincombat.Theuseofgunpowderintheearlyvase-likemortarsinEurope,andadvancedversionsofthelongbowandcrossbow,whichallhadarmour-piercingarrowheads,thatputanendtothedominanceofthearmouredknight.Afterthelongbow,whichrequiredgreatskillandstrengthtouse,thenextmostsignificanttechnologicaladvancewasthemusket,whichcouldbeusedeffectively,withlittletraining.Intime,thesuccessorstomusketsandcannon,intheformofriflesandartillery,wouldbecomecorebattlefieldtechnology. Asthespeedoftechnologicaladvancesacceleratedincivilianapplications,sotoowarfarebecamemoreindustrialized.Thenewlyinventedmachinegunandrepeatingrifleredefinedfirepoweronthebattlefield,and,inpart,explainsthehighcasualtyratesoftheAmericanCivilWar.Thenextbreakthroughwastheconversionofartilleryparksfromthemuzzleloadingguns,tothequickerloadingbreechloadinggunswithrecoilingbarrelthatallowedquickeraimedfireanduseofashield.Thewidespreadintroductionoflowsmoke(smokeless)propellantpowderssincethe1880salsoallowedforagreatimprovementofartilleryranges. NavalmilitaryforcesofFranceandBritainexchangefireattheBattleoftheChesapeake Thedevelopmentofbreechloadinghadthegreatesteffectonnavalwarfare,forthefirsttimesincetheMiddleAges,alteringthewayweaponsaremountedonwarships,andthereforenavaltactics,nowdivorcedfromtherelianceonsailswiththeinventionoftheinternalcombustion.Afurtheradvanceinmilitarynavaltechnologywasthedesignofthesubmarine,anditsweapon,thetorpedo. Mainbattletanks,andotherheavyequipmentsuchasarmouredfightingvehicles,militaryaircraft,andships,arecharacteristictoorganizedmilitaryforces. DuringWorldWarI,theneedtobreakthedeadlockoftrenchwarfaresawtherapiddevelopmentofmanynewtechnologies,particularlytanks.Militaryaviationwasextensivelyused,andbombersbecamedecisiveinmanybattlesofWorldWarII,whichmarkedthemostfranticperiodofweaponsdevelopmentinhistory.Manynewdesigns,andconceptswereusedincombat,andallexistingtechnologiesofwarfarewereimprovedbetween1939and1945. Duringthewar,significantadvancesweremadeinmilitarycommunicationsthroughincreaseduseofradio,militaryintelligencethroughuseoftheradar,andinmilitarymedicinethroughuseofpenicillin,whileintheair,theguidedmissile,jetaircraft,andhelicopterswereseenforthefirsttime.Perhapsthemostinfamousofallmilitarytechnologieswasthecreationoftheatomicbomb,althoughtheexacteffectsofitsradiationwereunknownuntiltheearly1950s.Fargreateruseofmilitaryvehicleshadfinallyeliminatedthecavalryfromthemilitaryforcestructure. AIM-7Sparrowmediumrangeair-to-airmissilefromanF-15Eagle AfterWorldWarII,withtheonsetoftheColdWar,theconstanttechnologicaldevelopmentofnewweaponswasinstitutionalized,asparticipantsengagedinaconstant'armsrace'incapabilitydevelopment.Thisconstantstateofweaponsdevelopmentcontinuesintothepresent,andremainsaconstantdrainonnationalresources,whichsome[who?]blameonthemilitary–industrialcomplex. Themostsignificanttechnologicaldevelopmentsthatinfluencedcombathavebeentheguidedmissiles,whichcanbeusedbyallbranchesofthearmedservices.Morerecently,informationtechnology,anditsuseinsurveillance,includingspace-basedreconnaissancesystems,haveplayedanincreasingroleinmilitaryoperations. Theimpactofinformationwarfarethatfocusesonattackingcommandcommunicationsystems,andmilitarydatabases,hasbeencoupledwiththenewdevelopmentinmilitarytechnology,hasbeentheuseofroboticsystemsinintelligencecombat,bothinhardwareandsoftwareapplications. Recently,therehasalsobeenaparticularfocustowardstheuseofrenewablefuelsforrunningmilitaryvehicleson.Unlikefossilfuels,renewablefuelscanbeproducedinanycountry,creatingastrategicadvantage.TheUSmilitaryhascommitteditselftohave50%ofitsenergyconsumptioncomefromalternativesources.[40] Aspartofsociety Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(October2014)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Samurai,memberoftheJapanesewarriorcaste Formuchofmilitaryhistory,thearmedforceswereconsideredtobeforusebytheheadsoftheirsocieties,untilrecently,thecrownedheadsofstates.Inademocracyorotherpoliticalsystemruninthepublicinterest,itisapublicforce. Therelationshipbetweenthemilitaryandthesocietyitservesisacomplicatedandever-evolvingone.Muchdependsonthenatureofthesocietyitself,andwhetheritseesthemilitaryasimportant,asforexampleintimeofthreatorwar,oraburdensomeexpensetypifiedbydefencecutsintimeofpeace. Onedifficultmatterintherelationbetweenmilitaryandsocietyiscontrolandtransparency.Insomecountries,limitedinformationonmilitaryoperationsandbudgetingisaccessibleforthepublic.Howevertransparencyinthemilitarysectoriscrucialtofightcorruption.ThisshowedtheGovernmentDefenceAnti-corruptionIndexTransparencyInternationalUKpublishedin2013.[41] Militariesoftenfunctionassocietieswithinsocieties,byhavingtheirownmilitarycommunities,economies,education,medicine,andotheraspectsofafunctioningciviliansociety.Althougha'military'isnotlimitedtonationsinofitselfasmanyprivatemilitarycompanies(orPMC's)canbeusedor'hired'byorganizationsandfiguresassecurity,escort,orothermeansofprotection;wherepolice,agencies,ormilitariesareabsentornottrusted. Ideologyandethics Mainarticle:Militarism Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(March2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) SwedishkingGustavusAdolphusleadingacavalrycharge,1634 Militaristideologyisthesociety'ssocialattitudeofbeingbestserved,orbeingabeneficiaryofagovernment,orguidedbyconceptsembodiedinthemilitaryculture,doctrine,system,orleaders. Eitherbecauseoftheculturalmemory,nationalhistory,orthepotentialityofamilitarythreat,themilitaristargumentassertsthatacivilianpopulationisdependentupon,andtherebysubservienttotheneedsandgoalsofitsmilitaryforcontinuedindependence.Militarismissometimescontrastedwiththeconceptsofcomprehensivenationalpower,softpowerandhardpower. Mostnationshaveseparatemilitarylawswhichregulateconductinwarandduringpeacetime.AnearlyexponentwasHugoGrotius,whoseOntheLawofWarandPeace(1625)hadamajorimpactofthehumanitarianapproachtowarfaredevelopment.HisthemewasechoedbyGustavusAdolphus. Ethicsofwarfarehavedevelopedsince1945,tocreateconstraintsonthemilitarytreatmentofprisonersandcivilians,primarilybytheGenevaConventions;butrarelyapplytouseofthemilitaryforcesasinternalsecuritytroopsduringtimesofpoliticalconflictthatresultsinpopularprotestsandincitementtopopularuprising. Internationalprotocolsrestricttheuse,orhaveevencreatedinternationalbansonsometypesofweapons,notablyweaponsofmassdestruction(WMD).Internationalconventionsdefinewhatconstitutesawarcrime,andprovidesforwarcrimesprosecution.Individualcountriesalsohaveelaboratecodesofmilitaryjustice,anexamplebeingtheUnitedStates'UniformCodeofMilitaryJusticethatcanleadtocourtmartialformilitarypersonnelfoundguiltyofwarcrimes. Militaryactionsaresometimesarguedtobejustifiedbyfurtheringahumanitariancause,suchasdisasterreliefoperations,orindefenceofrefugees.Thetermmilitaryhumanismisusedtorefertosuchactions. Seealso Warportal Armsindustry Civildefense Civiliancontrolofthemilitary Commandandcontrol Conscription Court-martial Deterrencetheory Martialarts Martiallaw Mercenary Militaria Militaryacademy Militaryadvisor Militaryaid Militaryaidtothecivilcommunity(MACC) Militaryaidtothecivilpower(MACP) Militaryalliance Militarydictatorship Militarydistrict Militaryengineering Militaryexercise Militaryfiat Militaryincompetence Militaryjunta Militarymeteorology Militaryoperationsotherthanwar Militarypolice Militaryprison MilitaryRevolution Militarysociology Militaryterminology Military–industrialcomplex Militarizationofpolice Militia Ministryofdefence Mobilization Police Privatemilitarycompany Recruittraining Staff(military) Standingarmy Weapon Armedforcesoftheworld Listofcountriesbynumberofmilitaryandparamilitarypersonnel ListofcountriesbyMilitaryStrengthIndex Listofcountriesbylevelofmilitaryequipment ListofcountriesbyGlobalMilitarizationIndex Listofcountrieswithoutarmedforces Listofcountriesbymilitaryexpenditures Listofcountriesbypastmilitaryexpenditure Listofcountriesbymilitaryexpenditurepercapita Listofairforces Listofarmies Listofnavies References ^Jordan,David;Kiras,JamesD.;Lonsdale,DavidJ.;Speller,Ian;Tuck,Christopher;Walton,C.Dale(2016).Understandingmodernwarfare(Second ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 66.ISBN 978-1107134195. ^Mark,JoshuaJ.(2September2009)."WarinAncientTimes".WorldHistoryEncyclopedia. ^ TerracottaofmassedranksofQinShiHuang'sterracottasoldiers ^abcd"military".OxfordEnglishDictionary(Online ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.Retrieved25March2019. (Subscriptionorparticipatinginstitutionmembershiprequired.) ^Harper,Douglas."military".OnlineEtymologyDictionary. ^Tucker,T.G.(1985)EtymologicaldictionaryofLatin,ArespublishersInc.,Chicago.p.156 ^"MerriamWebsterDictionaryonline".Merriam-Webster.com.Retrieved1August2011. ^Morillo,Stephen,F.Pavkovic,Michael(2006).WhatisMilitaryHistory?(1 ed.).Cambridge:PolityPress.pp. 2,6–7.ISBN 0-7456-3390-0. 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^McGurk,Dennis;et al.(2006)."Joiningtheranks:Theroleofindoctrinationintransformingcivilianstoservicemembers".Militarylife:Thepsychologyofservinginpeaceandcombat.Vol. 2.Westport,Connecticut:PraegerSecurityInternational.pp. 13–31.ISBN 978-0-275-98302-4. ^abcdHockey,John(1986).Squaddies :portraitofasubculture.Exeter,Devon:UniversityofExeter.ISBN 978-0-85989-248-3.OCLC 25283124. ^abBourne,PeterG.(1May1967)."SomeObservationsonthePsychosocialPhenomenaSeeninBasicTraining".Psychiatry.30(2):187–196.doi:10.1080/00332747.1967.11023507.ISSN 0033-2747.PMID 27791700. ^Grossman,Dave(2009).Onkilling :thepsychologicalcostoflearningtokillinwarandsociety(Rev. ed.).NewYork:Little,BrownandCo.ISBN 978-0-316-04093-8.OCLC 427757599. ^Faris,JohnH.(16September2016)."TheImpactofBasicCombatTraining:TheRoleoftheDrillSergeantintheAll-VolunteerArmy".ArmedForces&Society.2(1):115–127.doi:10.1177/0095327x7500200108.S2CID 145213941. 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^Pyman,Mark(5March2013)."Transparencyisfeasible".www.DandC.eu.D+CDevelopmentandCooperation,EngagementGlobalGmbH.Retrieved2March2017. 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