Copyright - Wikipedia

A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, ... Copyright FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Legalconceptregulatingrightsofacreativework NottobeconfusedwithCopywriting. Thisarticleisaboutthelegalright.Forthesymbol,seeCopyrightsymbol.Fortheband,seeCopyright(band).FortheWikipediapolicy,seeWikipedia:Copyrights. Intellectualproperty Authors'rights Copyright Databaseright Farmers'rights Geographicalindication Indigenousintellectualproperty Industrialdesignright Integratedcircuitlayoutdesignprotection Moralrights Patent Peasants'rights Plantbreeders'rights Plantgeneticresources Relatedrights Supplementaryprotectioncertificate Tradedress Tradesecret Trademark Utilitymodel Relatedtopics Abandonware Brandprotection Copyrighttroll Criticismofcopyright Bioprospecting Culturalappropriation Idea–expressiondistinction Limitationsandexceptionstocopyright Fairdealing Fairuse Paraphrasing Righttoquote Orphanwork Patenttroll PirateParty Publicdomain Outlineofintellectualproperty Outlineofpatents Highercategories:PropertyandPropertylaw vte Acopyrightisatypeofintellectualpropertythatgivesitsownertheexclusiverighttocopy,distribute,adapt,display,andperformacreativework,usuallyforalimitedtime.[1][2][3][4][5]Thecreativeworkmaybeinaliterary,artistic,educational,ormusicalform.Copyrightisintendedtoprotecttheoriginalexpressionofanideaintheformofacreativework,butnottheideaitself.[6][7][8]Acopyrightissubjecttolimitationsbasedonpublicinterestconsiderations,suchasthefairusedoctrineintheUnitedStates. Somejurisdictionsrequire"fixing"copyrightedworksinatangibleform.Itisoftensharedamongmultipleauthors,eachofwhomholdsasetofrightstouseorlicensethework,andwhoarecommonlyreferredtoasrightsholders.[9][10][11][12][better source needed]Theserightsfrequentlyincludereproduction,controloverderivativeworks,distribution,publicperformance,andmoralrightssuchasattribution.[13] Copyrightscanbegrantedbypubliclawandareinthatcaseconsidered"territorialrights".Thismeansthatcopyrightsgrantedbythelawofacertainstate,donotextendbeyondtheterritoryofthatspecificjurisdiction.Copyrightsofthistypevarybycountry;manycountries,andsometimesalargegroupofcountries,havemadeagreementswithothercountriesonproceduresapplicablewhenworks"cross"nationalbordersornationalrightsareinconsistent.[14] Typically,thepubliclawdurationofacopyrightexpires50to100yearsafterthecreatordies,dependingonthejurisdiction.Somecountriesrequirecertaincopyrightformalities[5]toestablishingcopyright,othersrecognizecopyrightinanycompletedwork,withoutaformalregistration.Whenthecopyrightofaworkexpires,itentersthepublicdomain. Contents 1History 1.1Background 1.2Conception 1.3Nationalcopyrights 1.4Internationalcopyrighttreaties 2Obtainingprotection 2.1Ownership 2.2Eligibleworks 2.3Originality 2.4Registration 2.5Fixing 2.6Copyrightnotice 3Enforcement 3.1Copyrightinfringement 4Rightsgranted 4.1Economicrights 4.2Moralrights 4.3Duration 5Limitationsandexceptions 5.1Idea–expressiondichotomyandthemergerdoctrine 5.2Thefirst-saledoctrineandexhaustionofrights 5.3Fairuseandfairdealing 5.4Accessiblecopies 5.5ReligiousServiceExemption 6Transfer,assignmentandlicensing 6.1Freelicenses 7Criticism 8Publicdomain 9Seealso 10References 11Furtherreading 12Externallinks History Mainarticle:Historyofcopyright Europeanoutputofbooksbeforetheadventofcopyright,6thcenturyto18thcentury.Blueshowsprintedbooks.Log-linplot;astraightlinethereforeshowsanexponentialincrease. Background TheconceptofcopyrightdevelopedaftertheprintingpresscameintouseinEurope[15]inthe15thand16thcenturies.[16]Theprintingpressmadeitmuchcheapertoproduceworks,butastherewasinitiallynocopyrightlaw,anyonecouldbuyorrentapressandprintanytext.Popularnewworkswereimmediatelyre-setandre-publishedbycompetitors,soprintersneededaconstantstreamofnewmaterial.Feespaidtoauthorsfornewworkswerehigh,andsignificantlysupplementedtheincomesofmanyacademics.[17] Printingbroughtprofoundsocialchanges.TheriseinliteracyacrossEuropeledtoadramaticincreaseinthedemandforreadingmatter.[15]Pricesofreprintswerelow,sopublicationscouldbeboughtbypoorerpeople,creatingamassaudience.[17]InGermanlanguagemarketsbeforetheadventofcopyright,technicalmaterials,likepopularfiction,wereinexpensiveandwidelyavailable;ithasbeensuggestedthiscontributedtoGermany'sindustrialandeconomicsuccess.[17]Aftercopyrightlawbecameestablished(in1710inEnglandandScotland,andinthe1840sinGerman-speakingareas)thelow-pricemassmarketvanished,andfewer,moreexpensiveeditionswerepublished;distributionofscientificandtechnicalinformationwasgreatlyreduced.[17][18] Conception TheconceptofcopyrightfirstdevelopedinEngland.Inreactiontotheprintingof"scandalousbooksandpamphlets",theEnglishParliamentpassedtheLicensingofthePressAct1662,[15]whichrequiredallintendedpublicationstoberegisteredwiththegovernment-approvedStationers'Company,givingtheStationerstherighttoregulatewhatmaterialcouldbeprinted.[19] TheStatuteofAnne,enactedin1710inEnglandandScotlandprovidedthefirstlegislationtoprotectcopyrights(butnotauthors'rights).TheCopyrightActof1814extendedmorerightsforauthorsbutdidnotprotectBritishfromreprintingintheUS.TheBerneInternationalCopyrightConventionof1886finallyprovidedprotectionforauthorsamongthecountrieswhosignedtheagreement,althoughtheUSdidnotjointheBerneConventionuntil1989.[20] IntheUS,theConstitutiongrantsCongresstherighttoestablishcopyrightandpatentlaws.ShortlyaftertheConstitutionwaspassed,CongressenactedtheCopyrightActof1790,modelingitaftertheStatuteofAnne.Whilethenationallawprotectedauthors’publishedworks,authoritywasgrantedtothestatestoprotectauthors’unpublishedworks.ThemostrecentmajoroverhaulofcopyrightintheUS,the1976CopyrightAct,extendedfederalcopyrighttoworksassoonastheyarecreatedand"fixed",withoutrequiringpublicationorregistration.Statelawcontinuestoapplytounpublishedworksthatarenototherwisecopyrightedbyfederallaw.[20]Thisactalsochangedthecalculationofcopyrighttermfromafixedterm(thenamaximumoffifty-sixyears)to"lifeoftheauthorplus50years".ThesechangesbroughttheUSclosertoconformitywiththeBerneConvention,andin1989theUnitedStatesfurtherreviseditscopyrightlawandjoinedtheBerneConventionofficially.[20] Copyrightlawsallowproductsofcreativehumanactivities,suchasliteraryandartisticproduction,tobepreferentiallyexploitedandthusincentivized.Differentculturalattitudes,socialorganizations,economicmodelsandlegalframeworksareseentoaccountforwhycopyrightemergedinEuropeandnot,forexample,inAsia.IntheMiddleAgesinEurope,therewasgenerallyalackofanyconceptofliterarypropertyduetothegeneralrelationsofproduction,thespecificorganizationofliteraryproductionandtheroleofcultureinsociety.Thelatterreferstothetendencyoforalsocieties,suchasthatofEuropeinthemedievalperiod,toviewknowledgeastheproductandexpressionofthecollective,ratherthantoseeitasindividualproperty.However,withcopyrightlaws,intellectualproductioncomestobeseenasaproductofanindividual,withattendantrights.Themostsignificantpointisthatpatentandcopyrightlawssupporttheexpansionoftherangeofcreativehumanactivitiesthatcanbecommodified.Thisparallelsthewaysinwhichcapitalismledtothecommodificationofmanyaspectsofsociallifethatearlierhadnomonetaryoreconomicvalueper se.[21] Copyrighthasdevelopedintoaconceptthathasasignificanteffectonnearlyeverymodernindustry,includingnotjustliterarywork,butalsoformsofcreativeworksuchassoundrecordings,films,photographs,software,andarchitecture. Nationalcopyrights Seealso:StatuteofAnneandHistoryofcopyrightlawoftheUnitedStates TheStatuteofAnne(theCopyrightAct1709)cameintoforcein1710. Oftenseenasthefirstrealcopyrightlaw,the1709BritishStatuteofAnnegavethepublishersrightsforafixedperiod,afterwhichthecopyrightexpired.[22] Theactalsoalludedtoindividualrightsoftheartist.Itbegan,"WhereasPrinters,Booksellers,andotherPersons,haveoflatefrequentlytakentheLibertyofPrinting ...Books,andotherWritings,withouttheConsentoftheAuthors ...totheirverygreatDetriment,andtoooftentotheRuinofthemandtheirFamilies:".[23]Arighttobenefitfinanciallyfromtheworkisarticulated,andcourtrulingsandlegislationhaverecognizedarighttocontrolthework,suchasensuringthattheintegrityofitispreserved.Anirrevocablerighttoberecognizedasthework'screatorappearsinsomecountries'copyrightlaws. TheCopyrightClauseoftheUnitedStates,Constitution(1787)authorizedcopyrightlegislation:"TopromotetheProgressofScienceandusefulArts,bysecuringforlimitedTimestoAuthorsandInventorstheexclusiveRighttotheirrespectiveWritingsandDiscoveries."Thatis,byguaranteeingthemaperiodoftimeinwhichtheyalonecouldprofitfromtheirworks,theywouldbeenabledandencouragedtoinvestthetimerequiredtocreatethem,andthiswouldbegoodforsocietyasawhole.Arighttoprofitfromtheworkhasbeenthephilosophicalunderpinningformuchlegislationextendingthedurationofcopyright,tothelifeofthecreatorandbeyond,totheirheirs. TheoriginallengthofcopyrightintheUnitedStateswas14 years,andithadtobeexplicitlyappliedfor.Iftheauthorwished,theycouldapplyforasecond14‑yearmonopolygrant,butafterthattheworkenteredthepublicdomain,soitcouldbeusedandbuiltuponbyothers. CopyrightlawwasenactedratherlateinGermanstates,andthehistorianEckhardHöffnerarguesthattheabsenceofcopyrightlawsintheearly19thcenturyencouragedpublishing,wasprofitableforauthors,ledtoaproliferationofbooks,enhancedknowledge,andwasultimatelyanimportantfactorintheascendencyofGermanyasapowerduringthatcentury.[24]However,empiricalevidencederivedfromtheexogenousdifferentialintroductionofcopyrightinNapoleonicItalyshowsthat"basiccopyrightsincreasedboththenumberandthequalityofoperas,measuredbytheirpopularityanddurability".[25] Internationalcopyrighttreaties Seealso:InternationalcopyrightagreementsandListofpartiestointernationalcopyrightagreements ThePiratePublisher—AnInternationalBurlesquethathastheLongestRunonRecord,fromPuck,1886,satirizesthethen-existingsituationwhereapublishercouldprofitbysimplycopyingnewlypublishedworksfromonecountry,andpublishingtheminanother,andviceversa. The1886BerneConventionfirstestablishedrecognitionofcopyrightsamongsovereignnations,ratherthanmerelybilaterally.UndertheBerneConvention,copyrightsforcreativeworksdonothavetobeassertedordeclared,astheyareautomaticallyinforceatcreation:anauthorneednot"register"or"applyfor"acopyrightincountriesadheringtotheBerneConvention.[26]Assoonasaworkis"fixed",thatis,writtenorrecordedonsomephysicalmedium,itsauthorisautomaticallyentitledtoallcopyrightsinthework,andtoanyderivativeworksunlessanduntiltheauthorexplicitlydisclaimsthem,oruntilthecopyrightexpires.TheBerneConventionalsoresultedinforeignauthorsbeingtreatedequivalentlytodomesticauthors,inanycountrysignedontotheConvention.TheUKsignedtheBerneConventionin1887butdidnotimplementlargepartsofituntil100 yearslaterwiththepassageoftheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988.Specially,foreducationalandscientificresearchpurposes,theBerneConventionprovidesthedevelopingcountriesissuecompulsorylicensesforthetranslationorreproductionofcopyrightedworkswithinthelimitsprescribedbytheConvention.Thiswasaspecialprovisionthathadbeenaddedatthetimeof1971revisionoftheConvention,becauseofthestrongdemandsofthedevelopingcountries.TheUnitedStatesdidnotsigntheBerneConventionuntil1989.[27] TheUnitedStatesandmostLatinAmericancountriesinsteadenteredintotheBuenosAiresConventionin1910,whichrequiredacopyrightnoticeonthework(suchasallrightsreserved),andpermittedsignatorynationstolimitthedurationofcopyrightstoshorterandrenewableterms.[28][29][30]TheUniversalCopyrightConventionwasdraftedin1952asanotherlessdemandingalternativetotheBerneConvention,andratifiedbynationssuchastheSovietUnionanddevelopingnations. TheregulationsoftheBerneConventionareincorporatedintotheWorldTradeOrganization'sTRIPSagreement(1995),thusgivingtheBerneConventioneffectivelynear-globalapplication.[31] In1961,theUnitedInternationalBureauxfortheProtectionofIntellectualPropertysignedtheRomeConventionfortheProtectionofPerformers,ProducersofPhonogramsandBroadcastingOrganizations.In1996,thisorganizationwassucceededbythefoundingoftheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization,whichlaunchedthe1996WIPOPerformancesandPhonogramsTreatyandthe2002WIPOCopyrightTreaty,whichenactedgreaterrestrictionsontheuseoftechnologytocopyworksinthenationsthatratifiedit.TheTrans-PacificPartnershipincludesintellectualPropertyProvisionsrelatingtocopyright. CopyrightlawsarestandardizedsomewhatthroughtheseinternationalconventionssuchastheBerneConventionandUniversalCopyrightConvention.Thesemultilateraltreatieshavebeenratifiedbynearlyallcountries,andinternationalorganizationssuchastheEuropeanUnionorWorldTradeOrganizationrequiretheirmemberstatestocomplywiththem. Obtainingprotection Ownership Theoriginalholderofthecopyrightmaybetheemployeroftheauthorratherthantheauthorhimselfiftheworkisa"workforhire".[32][33]Forexample,inEnglishlawtheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988providesthatifacopyrightedworkismadebyanemployeeinthecourseofthatemployment,thecopyrightisautomaticallyownedbytheemployerwhichwouldbea"WorkforHire".Typically,thefirstownerofacopyrightisthepersonwhocreatedtheworki.e.theauthor.[34]Butwhenmorethanonepersoncreatesthework,thenacaseofjointauthorshipcanbemadeprovidedsomecriteriaaremet. Eligibleworks Copyrightmayapplytoawiderangeofcreative,intellectual,orartisticforms,or"works".Specificsvarybyjurisdiction,butthesecanincludepoems,theses,fictionalcharacters,playsandotherliteraryworks,motionpictures,choreography,musicalcompositions,soundrecordings,paintings,drawings,sculptures,photographs,computersoftware,radioandtelevisionbroadcasts,andindustrialdesigns.Graphicdesignsandindustrialdesignsmayhaveseparateoroverlappinglawsappliedtotheminsomejurisdictions.[35][36] Copyrightdoesnotcoverideasandinformationthemselves,onlytheformormannerinwhichtheyareexpressed.[37]Forexample,thecopyrighttoaMickeyMousecartoonrestrictsothersfrommakingcopiesofthecartoonorcreatingderivativeworksbasedonDisney'sparticularanthropomorphicmouse,butdoesnotprohibitthecreationofotherworksaboutanthropomorphicmiceingeneral,solongastheyaredifferentenoughtonotbejudgedcopiesofDisney's.[37]NoteadditionallythatMickeyMouseisnotcopyrightedbecausecharacterscannotbecopyrighted;rather,SteamboatWillieiscopyrightedandMickeyMouse,asacharacterinthatcopyrightedwork,isaffordedprotection. Originality Mainarticle:Thresholdoforiginality Typically,aworkmustmeetminimalstandardsoforiginalityinordertoqualifyforcopyright,andthecopyrightexpiresafterasetperiodoftime(somejurisdictionsmayallowthistobeextended).Differentcountriesimposedifferenttests,althoughgenerallytherequirementsarelow;intheUnitedKingdomtherehastobesome"skill,labour,andjudgment"thathasgoneintoit.[38]InAustraliaandtheUnitedKingdomithasbeenheldthatasinglewordisinsufficienttocompriseacopyrightwork.However,singlewordsorashortstringofwordscansometimesberegisteredasatrademarkinstead. Copyrightlawrecognizestherightofanauthorbasedonwhethertheworkactuallyisanoriginalcreation,ratherthanbasedonwhetheritisunique;twoauthorsmayowncopyrightontwosubstantiallyidenticalworks,ifitisdeterminedthattheduplicationwascoincidental,andneitherwascopiedfromtheother. Registration Mainarticle:Copyrightregistration InallcountrieswheretheBerneConventionstandardsapply,copyrightisautomatic,andneednotbeobtainedthroughofficialregistrationwithanygovernmentoffice.Onceanideahasbeenreducedtotangibleform,forexamplebysecuringitinafixedmedium(suchasadrawing,sheetmusic,photograph,avideotape,oracomputerfile),thecopyrightholderisentitledtoenforcehisorherexclusiverights.[26]However,whileregistrationisnotneededtoexercisecopyright,injurisdictionswherethelawsprovideforregistration,itservesasprimafacieevidenceofavalidcopyrightandenablesthecopyrightholdertoseekstatutorydamagesandattorney'sfees.[39](IntheUS,registeringafteraninfringementonlyenablesonetoreceiveactualdamagesandlostprofits.) Awidelycirculatedstrategytoavoidthecostofcopyrightregistrationisreferredtoasthepoorman'scopyright.Itproposesthatthecreatorsendtheworktohimselfinasealedenvelopebyregisteredmail,usingthepostmarktoestablishthedate.ThistechniquehasnotbeenrecognizedinanypublishedopinionsoftheUnitedStatescourts.TheUnitedStatesCopyrightOfficesaysthetechniqueisnotasubstituteforactualregistration.[40]TheUnitedKingdomIntellectualPropertyOfficediscussesthetechniqueandnotesthatthetechnique(aswellascommercialregistries)doesnotconstitutedispositiveproofthattheworkisoriginalorestablishwhocreatedthework.[41][42] Fixing TheBerneConventionallowsmembercountriestodecidewhethercreativeworksmustbe"fixed"toenjoycopyright.Article2,Section2oftheBerneConventionstates:"ItshallbeamatterforlegislationinthecountriesoftheUniontoprescribethatworksingeneraloranyspecifiedcategoriesofworksshallnotbeprotectedunlesstheyhavebeenfixedinsomematerialform."Somecountriesdonotrequirethataworkbeproducedinaparticularformtoobtaincopyrightprotection.Forinstance,Spain,France,andAustraliadonotrequirefixationforcopyrightprotection.TheUnitedStatesandCanada,ontheotherhand,requirethatmostworksmustbe"fixedinatangiblemediumofexpression"toobtaincopyrightprotection.[43]USlawrequiresthatthefixationbestableandpermanentenoughtobe"perceived,reproducedorcommunicatedforaperiodofmorethantransitoryduration".Similarly,Canadiancourtsconsiderfixationtorequirethattheworkbe"expressedtosomeextentatleastinsomematerialform,capableofidentificationandhavingamoreorlesspermanentendurance".[43] NotethisprovisionofUSlaw:c)EffectofBerneConvention.—Norightorinterestinaworkeligibleforprotectionunderthistitlemaybeclaimedbyvirtueof,orinrelianceupon,theprovisionsoftheBerneConvention,ortheadherenceoftheUnitedStatesthereto.Anyrightsinaworkeligibleforprotectionunderthistitlethatderivefromthistitle,otherFederalorStatestatutes,orthecommonlaw,shallnotbeexpandedorreducedbyvirtueof,orinrelianceupon,theprovisionsoftheBerneConvention,ortheadherenceoftheUnitedStatesthereto.[44] Copyrightnotice Mainarticle:Copyrightnotice Acopyrightsymbolusedincopyrightnotice Acopyrightsymbolembossedonapieceofpaper. Before1989,UnitedStateslawrequiredtheuseofacopyrightnotice,consistingofthecopyrightsymbol(©,theletterCinsideacircle),theabbreviation"Copr.",ortheword"Copyright",followedbytheyearofthefirstpublicationoftheworkandthenameofthecopyrightholder.[45][46]Severalyearsmaybenotediftheworkhasgonethroughsubstantialrevisions.Thepropercopyrightnoticeforsoundrecordingsofmusicalorotheraudioworksisasoundrecordingcopyrightsymbol(℗,theletter Pinsideacircle),whichindicatesasoundrecordingcopyright,withtheletter Pindicatinga"phonorecord".Inaddition,thephraseAllrightsreservedwasoncerequiredtoassertcopyright,butthatphraseisnowlegallyobsolete.AlmosteverythingontheInternethassomesortofcopyrightattachedtoit.Whetherthesethingsarewatermarked,signed,orhaveanyothersortofindicationofthecopyrightisadifferentstoryhowever.[47] In1989theUnitedStatesenactedtheBerneConventionImplementationAct,amendingthe1976 CopyrightActtoconformtomostoftheprovisionsoftheBerneConvention.Asaresult,theuseofcopyrightnoticeshasbecomeoptionaltoclaimcopyright,becausetheBerneConventionmakescopyrightautomatic.[48]However,thelackofnoticeofcopyrightusingthesemarksmayhaveconsequencesintermsofreduceddamagesinaninfringementlawsuit –usingnoticesofthisformmayreducethelikelihoodofadefenseof"innocentinfringement"beingsuccessful.[49] Enforcement Copyrightsaregenerallyenforcedbytheholderinacivillawcourt,buttherearealsocriminalinfringementstatutesinsomejurisdictions.Whilecentralregistriesarekeptinsomecountrieswhichaidinprovingclaimsofownership,registeringdoesnotnecessarilyproveownership,nordoesthefactofcopying(evenwithoutpermission)necessarilyprovethatcopyrightwasinfringed.Criminalsanctionsaregenerallyaimedatseriouscounterfeitingactivity,butarenowbecomingmorecommonplaceascopyrightcollectivessuchastheRIAAareincreasinglytargetingthefilesharinghomeInternetuser.Thusfar,however,mostsuchcasesagainstfilesharershavebeensettledoutofcourt.(SeeLegalaspectsoffilesharing) Inmostjurisdictionsthecopyrightholdermustbearthecostofenforcingcopyright.Thiswillusuallyinvolveengaginglegalrepresentation,administrativeorcourtcosts.Inlightofthis,manycopyrightdisputesaresettledbyadirectapproachtotheinfringingpartyinordertosettlethedisputeoutofcourt. "...by1978,thescopewasexpandedtoapplytoany'expression'thathasbeen'fixed'inanymedium,thisprotectiongrantedautomaticallywhetherthemakerwantsitornot,noregistrationrequired."[50] Copyrightinfringement Mainarticle:Copyrightinfringement Foraworktobeconsideredtoinfringeuponcopyright,itsusemusthaveoccurredinanationthathasdomesticcopyrightlawsoradherestoabilateraltreatyorestablishedinternationalconventionsuchastheBerneConventionorWIPOCopyrightTreaty.Improperuseofmaterialsoutsideoflegislationisdeemed"unauthorizededition",notcopyrightinfringement.[51] Statisticsregardingtheeffectsofcopyrightinfringementaredifficulttodetermine.Studieshaveattemptedtodeterminewhetherthereisamonetarylossforindustriesaffectedbycopyrightinfringementbypredictingwhatportionofpiratedworkswouldhavebeenformallypurchasediftheyhadnotbeenfreelyavailable.[52]Otherreportsindicatethatcopyrightinfringementdoesnothaveanadverseeffectontheentertainmentindustry,andcanhaveapositiveeffect.[53]Inparticular,a2014universitystudyconcludedthatfreemusiccontent,accessedonYouTube,doesnotnecessarilyhurtsales,insteadhasthepotentialtoincreasesales.[54] AccordingtotheIPCommissionReporttheannualcostofintellectualpropertythefttotheUSeconomy"continuestoexceed$225billionincounterfeitgoods,piratedsoftware,andtheftoftradesecretsandcouldbeashighas$600billion."[55]A2019studysponsoredbytheUSChamberofCommerceGlobalInnovationPolicyCenter(GIPC),inpartnershipwithNERAEconomicConsulting"estimatesthatglobalonlinepiracycoststheU.S.economyatleast$29.2billioninlostrevenueeachyear."[56]AnAugust2021reportbytheDigitalCitizensAlliancestatesthat"onlinecriminalswhoofferstolenmovies,TVshows,games,andliveeventsthroughwebsitesandappsarereaping$1.34billioninannualadvertisingrevenues."Thiscomesasaresultofusersvisitingpiratewebsiteswhoarethensubjectedtopiratedcontent,malware,andfraud.[57] Rightsgranted AccordingtoWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisation,copyrightprotectstwotypesofrights.Economicrightsallowrightownerstoderivefinancialrewardfromtheuseoftheirworksbyothers.Moralrightsallowauthorsandcreatorstotakecertainactionstopreserveandprotecttheirlinkwiththeirwork.Theauthororcreatormaybetheowneroftheeconomicrightsorthoserightsmaybetransferredtooneormorecopyrightowners.Manycountriesdonotallowthetransferofmoralrights.[58] Economicrights Withanykindofproperty,itsownermaydecidehowitistobeused,andotherscanuseitlawfullyonlyiftheyhavetheowner'spermission,oftenthroughalicense.Theowner'suseofthepropertymust,however,respectthelegallyrecognisedrightsandinterestsofothermembersofsociety.Sotheownerofacopyright-protectedworkmaydecidehowtousethework,andmaypreventothersfromusingitwithoutpermission.Nationallawsusuallygrantcopyrightownersexclusiverightstoallowthirdpartiestousetheirworks,subjecttothelegallyrecognisedrightsandinterestsofothers.[58]Mostcopyrightlawsstatethatauthorsorotherrightownershavetherighttoauthoriseorpreventcertainactsinrelationtoawork.Rightownerscanauthoriseorprohibit: reproductionoftheworkinvariousforms,suchasprintedpublicationsorsoundrecordings; distributionofcopiesofthework; publicperformanceofthework; broadcastingorothercommunicationoftheworktothepublic; translationoftheworkintootherlanguages;and adaptationofthework,suchasturninganovelintoascreenplay. Moralrights Mainarticle:Moralrights Moralrightsareconcernedwiththenon-economicrightsofacreator.Theyprotectthecreator'sconnectionwithaworkaswellastheintegrityofthework.Moralrightsareonlyaccordedtoindividualauthorsandinmanynationallawstheyremainwiththeauthorsevenaftertheauthorshavetransferredtheireconomicrights.InsomeEUcountries,suchasFrance,moralrightslastindefinitely.IntheUK,however,moralrightsarefinite.Thatis,therightofattributionandtherightofintegritylastonlyaslongastheworkisincopyright.Whenthecopyrighttermcomestoanend,sotoodothemoralrightsinthatwork.ThisisjustonereasonwhythemoralrightsregimewithintheUKisoftenregardedasweakerorinferiortotheprotectionofmoralrightsincontinentalEuropeandelsewhereintheworld.[59]TheBerneConvention,inArticle6bis,requiresitsmemberstograntauthorsthefollowingrights: therighttoclaimauthorshipofawork(sometimescalledtherightofpaternityortherightofattribution);and therighttoobjecttoanydistortionormodificationofawork,orotherderogatoryactioninrelationtoawork,whichwouldbeprejudicialtotheauthor'shonourorreputation(sometimescalledtherightofintegrity). Theseandothersimilarrightsgrantedinnationallawsaregenerallyknownasthemoralrightsofauthors.TheBerneConventionrequirestheserightstobeindependentofauthors’economicrights.Moralrightsareonlyaccordedtoindividualauthorsandinmanynationallawstheyremainwiththeauthorsevenaftertheauthorshavetransferredtheireconomicrights.Thismeansthatevenwhere,forexample,afilmproducerorpublisherownstheeconomicrightsinawork,inmanyjurisdictionstheindividualauthorcontinuestohavemoralrights.[58]Recently,asapartofthedebatesbeingheldattheUSCopyrightOfficeonthequestionofinclusionofMoralRightsasapartoftheframeworkoftheCopyrightLawinUnitedStates,theCopyrightOfficeconcludedthatmanydiverseaspectsofthecurrentmoralrightspatchwork–includingcopyrightlaw'sderivativeworkright,statemoralrightsstatutes,andcontractlaw–aregenerallyworkingwellandshouldnotbechanged.Further,theOfficeconcludesthatthereisnoneedforthecreationofablanketmoralrightsstatuteatthistime.However,thereareaspectsoftheUSmoralrightspatchworkthatcouldbeimprovedtothebenefitofindividualauthorsandthecopyrightsystemasawhole.[60] TheCopyrightLawintheUnitedStates,severalexclusiverightsaregrantedtotheholderofacopyright,asarelistedbelow: protectionofthework; todetermineanddecidehow,andunderwhatconditions,theworkmaybemarketed,publiclydisplayed,reproduced,distributed,etc. toproducecopiesorreproductionsoftheworkandtosellthosecopies;(including,typically,electroniccopies) toimportorexportthework; tocreatederivativeworks;(worksthatadapttheoriginalwork) toperformordisplaytheworkpublicly; tosellorcedetheserightstoothers; totransmitordisplaybyradio,videoorinternet.[35] Thebasicrightwhenaworkisprotectedbycopyrightisthattheholdermaydetermineanddecidehowandunderwhatconditionstheprotectedworkmaybeusedbyothers.Thisincludestherighttodecidetodistributetheworkforfree.Thispartofcopyrightisoftenoverseen.Thephrase"exclusiveright"meansthatonlythecopyrightholderisfreetoexercisethoserights,andothersareprohibitedfromusingtheworkwithouttheholder'spermission.Copyrightissometimescalleda"negativeright",asitservestoprohibitcertainpeople(e.g.,readers,viewers,orlisteners,andprimarilypublishersandwouldbepublishers)fromdoingsomethingtheywouldotherwisebeabletodo,ratherthanpermittingpeople(e.g.,authors)todosomethingtheywouldotherwisebeunabletodo.InthiswayitissimilartotheunregistereddesignrightinEnglishlawandEuropeanlaw.Therightsofthecopyrightholderalsopermithim/hertonotuseorexploittheircopyright,forsomeoralloftheterm.Thereis,however,acritiquewhichrejectsthisassertionasbeingbasedonaphilosophicalinterpretationofcopyrightlawthatisnotuniversallyshared.Thereisalsodebateonwhethercopyrightshouldbeconsideredapropertyrightoramoralright.[61] UKcopyrightlawgivescreatorsbotheconomicrightsandmoralrights.While‘copying’someoneelse'sworkwithoutpermissionmayconstituteaninfringementoftheireconomicrights,thatis,thereproductionrightortherightofcommunicationtothepublic,whereas,‘mutilating’itmightinfringethecreator'smoralrights.IntheUK,moralrightsincludetherighttobeidentifiedastheauthorofthework,whichisgenerallyidentifiedastherightofattribution,andtherightnottohaveyourworksubjectedto‘derogatorytreatment’,thatistherightofintegrity.[59] IndiancopyrightlawisatparitywiththeinternationalstandardsascontainedinTRIPS.TheIndianCopyrightAct,1957,pursuanttotheamendmentsin1999,2002and2012,fullyreflectstheBerneConventionandtheUniversalCopyrightsConvention,towhichIndiaisaparty.IndiaisalsoapartytotheGenevaConventionfortheProtectionofRightsofProducersofPhonogramsandisanactivememberoftheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(WIPO)andUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO).TheIndiansystemprovidesboththeeconomicandmoralrightsunderdifferentprovisionsofitsIndianCopyrightActof1957.[62] Duration Mainarticles:CopyrighttermandListofcountries'copyrightlength ExpansionofUScopyrightlaw(currentlybasedonthedateofcreationorpublication) Copyrightsubsistsforavarietyoflengthsindifferentjurisdictions.Thelengthofthetermcandependonseveralfactors,includingthetypeofwork(e.g.musicalcomposition,novel),whethertheworkhasbeenpublished,andwhethertheworkwascreatedbyanindividualoracorporation.Inmostoftheworld,thedefaultlengthofcopyrightisthelifeoftheauthorpluseither50or70years.IntheUnitedStates,thetermformostexistingworksisafixednumberofyearsafterthedateofcreationorpublication.Undermostcountries'laws(forexample,theUnitedStates[63]andtheUnitedKingdom[64]),copyrightsexpireattheendofthecalendaryearinwhichtheywouldotherwiseexpire. Thelengthandrequirementsforcopyrightdurationaresubjecttochangebylegislation,andsincetheearly20thcenturytherehavebeenanumberofadjustmentsmadeinvariouscountries,whichcanmakedeterminingthedurationofagivencopyrightsomewhatdifficult.Forexample,theUnitedStatesusedtorequirecopyrightstoberenewedafter28yearstostayinforce,andformerlyrequiredacopyrightnoticeuponfirstpublicationtogaincoverage.InItalyandFrance,therewerepost-wartimeextensionsthatcouldincreasethetermbyapproximately6yearsinItalyanduptoabout14inFrance.Manycountrieshaveextendedthelengthoftheircopyrightterms(sometimesretroactively).Internationaltreatiesestablishminimumtermsforcopyrights,butindividualcountriesmayenforcelongertermsthanthose.[65] IntheUnitedStates,allbooksandotherworks,exceptforsoundrecordings,publishedbefore1926haveexpiredcopyrightsandareinthepublicdomain.TheapplicabledateforsoundrecordingsintheUnitedStatesisbefore1923.[66]Inaddition,workspublishedbefore1964thatdidnothavetheircopyrightsrenewed28yearsafterfirstpublicationyearalsoareinthepublicdomain.Hirtlepointsoutthatthegreatmajorityoftheseworks(including93%ofthebooks)werenotrenewedafter28yearsandareinthepublicdomain.[67]BooksoriginallypublishedoutsidetheUSbynon-Americansareexemptfromthisrenewalrequirement,iftheyarestillundercopyrightintheirhomecountry. Butiftheintendedexploitationoftheworkincludespublication(ordistributionofderivativework,suchasafilmbasedonabookprotectedbycopyright)outsidetheUS,thetermsofcopyrightaroundtheworldmustbeconsidered.Iftheauthorhasbeendeadmorethan70years,theworkisinthepublicdomaininmost,butnotall,countries. In1998,thelengthofacopyrightintheUnitedStateswasincreasedby20yearsundertheCopyrightTermExtensionAct.Thislegislationwasstronglypromotedbycorporationswhichhadvaluablecopyrightswhichotherwisewouldhaveexpired,andhasbeenthesubjectofsubstantialcriticismonthispoint.[68] Limitationsandexceptions Mainarticle:Limitationsandexceptionstocopyright Inmanyjurisdictions,copyrightlawmakesexceptionstotheserestrictionswhentheworkiscopiedforthepurposeofcommentaryorotherrelateduses.UnitedStatescopyrightlawdoesnotcovernames,titles,shortphrasesorlistings(suchasingredients,recipes,labels,orformulas).[69]However,thereareprotectionsavailableforthoseareascopyrightdoesnotcover,suchastrademarksandpatents. Idea–expressiondichotomyandthemergerdoctrine Mainarticle:Idea–expressiondivide Theidea–expressiondividedifferentiatesbetweenideasandexpression,andstatesthatcopyrightprotectsonlytheoriginalexpressionofideas,andnottheideasthemselves.Thisprinciple,firstclarifiedinthe1879caseofBakerv.Selden,hassincebeencodifiedbytheCopyrightActof1976at17U.S.C.§ 102(b). Thefirst-saledoctrineandexhaustionofrights Mainarticles:First-saledoctrineandExhaustionofrights Copyrightlawdoesnotrestricttheownerofacopyfromresellinglegitimatelyobtainedcopiesofcopyrightedworks,providedthatthosecopieswereoriginallyproducedbyorwiththepermissionofthecopyrightholder.Itisthereforelegal,forexample,toresellacopyrightedbookorCD.IntheUnitedStatesthisisknownasthefirst-saledoctrine,andwasestablishedbythecourtstoclarifythelegalityofresellingbooksinsecond-handbookstores. Somecountriesmayhaveparallelimportationrestrictionsthatallowthecopyrightholdertocontroltheaftermarket.Thismaymeanforexamplethatacopyofabookthatdoesnotinfringecopyrightinthecountrywhereitwasprinteddoesinfringecopyrightinacountryintowhichitisimportedforretailing.Thefirst-saledoctrineisknownasexhaustionofrightsinothercountriesandisaprinciplewhichalsoapplies,thoughsomewhatdifferently,topatentandtrademarkrights.Itisimportanttonotethatthefirst-saledoctrinepermitsthetransferoftheparticularlegitimatecopyinvolved.Itdoesnotpermitmakingordistributingadditionalcopies. InKirtsaengv.JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,[70]in2013,theUnitedStatesSupremeCourtheldina6–3decisionthatthefirst-saledoctrineappliestogoodsmanufacturedabroadwiththecopyrightowner'spermissionandthenimportedintotheUSwithoutsuchpermission.ThecaseinvolvedaplaintiffwhoimportedAsianeditionsoftextbooksthathadbeenmanufacturedabroadwiththepublisher-plaintiff'spermission.Thedefendant,withoutpermissionfromthepublisher,importedthetextbooksandresoldoneBay.TheSupremeCourt'sholdingseverelylimitstheabilityofcopyrightholderstopreventsuchimportation. Inaddition,copyright,inmostcases,doesnotprohibitonefromactssuchasmodifying,defacing,ordestroyinghisorherownlegitimatelyobtainedcopyofacopyrightedwork,solongasduplicationisnotinvolved.However,incountriesthatimplementmoralrights,acopyrightholdercaninsomecasessuccessfullypreventthemutilationordestructionofaworkthatispubliclyvisible. Fairuseandfairdealing Mainarticles:FairuseandFairdealing Copyrightdoesnotprohibitallcopyingorreplication.IntheUnitedStates,thefairusedoctrine,codifiedbytheCopyrightActof1976as17U.S.C.Section107,permitssomecopyinganddistributionwithoutpermissionofthecopyrightholderorpaymenttosame.Thestatutedoesnotclearlydefinefairuse,butinsteadgivesfournon-exclusivefactorstoconsiderinafairuseanalysis.Thosefactorsare: thepurposeandcharacterofone'suse; thenatureofthecopyrightedwork; whatamountandproportionofthewholeworkwastaken; theeffectoftheuseuponthepotentialmarketfororvalueofthecopyrightedwork.[71] IntheUnitedKingdomandmanyotherCommonwealthcountries,asimilarnotionoffairdealingwasestablishedbythecourtsorthroughlegislation.Theconceptissometimesnotwelldefined;howeverinCanada,privatecopyingforpersonalusehasbeenexpresslypermittedbystatutesince1999.InAlberta(Education)v.CanadianCopyrightLicensingAgency(AccessCopyright),2012SCC37,theSupremeCourtofCanadaconcludedthatlimitedcopyingforeducationalpurposescouldalsobejustifiedunderthefairdealingexemption.InAustralia,thefairdealingexceptionsundertheCopyrightAct1968(Cth)arealimitedsetofcircumstancesunderwhichcopyrightedmaterialcanbelegallycopiedoradaptedwithoutthecopyrightholder'sconsent.Fairdealingusesareresearchandstudy;reviewandcritique;newsreportageandthegivingofprofessionaladvice(i.e.legaladvice).UndercurrentAustralianlaw,althoughitisstillabreachofcopyrighttocopy,reproduceoradaptcopyrightmaterialforpersonalorprivateusewithoutpermissionfromthecopyrightowner,ownersofalegitimatecopyarepermittedto"formatshift"thatworkfromonemediumtoanotherforpersonal,privateuse,orto"timeshift"abroadcastworkforlater,onceandonlyonce,viewingorlistening.Othertechnicalexemptionsfrominfringementmayalsoapply,suchasthetemporaryreproductionofaworkinmachinereadableformforacomputer. IntheUnitedStatestheAHRA(AudioHomeRecordingActCodifiedinSection10,1992)prohibitsactionagainstconsumersmakingnoncommercialrecordingsofmusic,inreturnforroyaltiesonbothmediaanddevicesplusmandatorycopy-controlmechanismsonrecorders. Section1008.Prohibitiononcertaininfringementactions Noactionmaybebroughtunderthistitlealleginginfringementofcopyrightbasedonthemanufacture,importation,ordistributionofadigitalaudiorecordingdevice,adigitalaudiorecordingmedium,ananalogrecordingdevice,orananalogrecordingmedium,orbasedonthenoncommercialusebyaconsumerofsuchadeviceormediumformakingdigitalmusicalrecordingsoranalogmusicalrecordings. LateractsamendedUSCopyrightlawsothatforcertainpurposesmaking10copiesormoreisconstruedtobecommercial,butthereisnogeneralrulepermittingsuchcopying.Indeed,makingonecompletecopyofawork,orinmanycasesusingaportionofit,forcommercialpurposeswillnotbeconsideredfairuse.TheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightActprohibitsthemanufacture,importation,ordistributionofdeviceswhoseintendeduse,oronlysignificantcommercialuse,istobypassanaccessorcopycontrolputinplacebyacopyrightowner.[35]Anappellatecourthasheldthatfairuseisnotadefensetoengaginginsuchdistribution.[citationneeded] EUcopyrightlawsrecognisetherightofEUmemberstatestoimplementsomenationalexceptionstocopyright.Examplesofthoseexceptionsare: photographicreproductionsonpaperoranysimilarmediumofworks(excludingsheetmusic)providedthattherightholdersreceivesfaircompensation; reproductionmadebylibraries,educationalestablishments,museumsorarchives,whicharenon-commercial; archivalreproductionsofbroadcasts; usesforthebenefitofpeoplewithadisability; fordemonstrationorrepairofequipment; fornon-commercialresearchorprivatestudy; whenusedinparody. Accessiblecopies ItislegalinseveralcountriesincludingtheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStatestoproducealternativeversions(forexample,inlargeprintorbraille)ofacopyrightedworktoprovideimprovedaccesstoaworkforblindandvisuallyimpairedpeoplewithoutpermissionfromthecopyrightholder.[72][73] ReligiousServiceExemption IntheUSthereisaReligiousServiceExemption(1976law,section110[3]),namely"performanceofanon-dramaticliteraryormusicalworkorofadramatico-musicalworkofareligiousnatureordisplayofawork,inthecourseofservicesataplaceofworshiporotherreligiousassembly"shallnotconstituteinfringementofcopyright.[74] Transfer,assignmentandlicensing Seealso:Collectiverightsmanagement,Extendedcollectivelicensing,Compulsorylicense,andCopyrighttransferagreement DVD:Allrightsreserved Acopyright,oraspectsofit(e.g.reproductionalone,allbutmoralrights),maybeassignedortransferredfromonepartytoanother.[75]Forexample,amusicianwhorecordsanalbumwilloftensignanagreementwitharecordcompanyinwhichthemusicianagreestotransferallcopyrightintherecordingsinexchangeforroyaltiesandotherconsiderations.Thecreator(andoriginalcopyrightholder)benefits,orexpectsto,fromproductionandmarketingcapabilitiesfarbeyondthoseoftheauthor.Inthedigitalageofmusic,musicmaybecopiedanddistributedatminimalcostthroughtheInternet;however,therecordindustryattemptstoprovidepromotionandmarketingfortheartistandtheirworksoitcanreachamuchlargeraudience.Acopyrightholderneednottransferallrightscompletely,thoughmanypublisherswillinsist.Someoftherightsmaybetransferred,orelsethecopyrightholdermaygrantanotherpartyanon-exclusivelicensetocopyordistributetheworkinaparticularregionorforaspecifiedperiodoftime. Atransferorlicencemayhavetomeetparticularformalrequirementsinordertobeeffective,[76]forexampleundertheAustralianCopyrightAct1968thecopyrightitselfmustbeexpresslytransferredinwriting.UndertheUSCopyrightAct,atransferofownershipincopyrightmustbememorializedinawritingsignedbythetransferor.Forthatpurpose,ownershipincopyrightincludesexclusivelicensesofrights.Thusexclusivelicenses,tobeeffective,mustbegrantedinawritteninstrumentsignedbythegrantor.Nospecialformoftransferorgrantisrequired.Asimpledocumentthatidentifiestheworkinvolvedandtherightsbeinggrantedissufficient.Non-exclusivegrants(oftencallednon-exclusivelicenses)neednotbeinwritingunderUSlaw.Theycanbeoralorevenimpliedbythebehavioroftheparties.Transfersofcopyrightownership,includingexclusivelicenses,mayandshouldberecordedintheU.S.CopyrightOffice.(InformationonrecordingtransfersisavailableontheOffice'swebsite.)Whilerecordingisnotrequiredtomakethegranteffective,itoffersimportantbenefits,muchlikethoseobtainedbyrecordingadeedinarealestatetransaction. Copyrightmayalsobelicensed.[75]Somejurisdictionsmayprovidethatcertainclassesofcopyrightedworksbemadeavailableunderaprescribedstatutorylicense(e.g.musicalworksintheUnitedStatesusedforradiobroadcastorperformance).Thisisalsocalledacompulsorylicense,becauseunderthisscheme,anyonewhowishestocopyacoveredworkdoesnotneedthepermissionofthecopyrightholder,butinsteadmerelyfilesthepropernoticeandpaysasetfeeestablishedbystatute(orbyanagencydecisionunderstatutoryguidance)foreverycopymade.[77]Failuretofollowtheproperprocedureswouldplacethecopieratriskofaninfringementsuit.Becauseofthedifficultyoffollowingeveryindividualwork,copyrightcollectivesorcollectingsocietiesandperformingrightsorganizations(suchasASCAP,BMI,andSESAC)havebeenformedtocollectroyaltiesforhundreds(thousandsandmore)worksatonce.Thoughthismarketsolutionbypassesthestatutorylicense,theavailabilityofthestatutoryfeestillhelpsdictatethepriceperworkcollectiverightsorganizationscharge,drivingitdowntowhatavoidanceofproceduralhasslewouldjustify. Freelicenses Mainarticle:Freelicense Copyrightlicensesknownasopenorfreelicensesseektograntseveralrightstolicensees,eitherforafeeornot.Freeinthiscontextisnotasmuchofareferencetopriceasitistofreedom.Whatconstitutesfreelicensinghasbeencharacterisedinanumberofsimilardefinitions,includingbyorderoflongevitytheFreeSoftwareDefinition,theDebianFreeSoftwareGuidelines,theOpenSourceDefinitionandtheDefinitionofFreeCulturalWorks.Furtherrefinementstothesedefinitionshaveresultedincategoriessuchascopyleftandpermissive.CommonexamplesoffreelicencesaretheGNUGeneralPublicLicense,BSDlicensesandsomeCreativeCommonslicenses. Foundedin2001byJamesBoyle,LawrenceLessig,andHalAbelson,theCreativeCommons(CC)isanon-profitorganization[78]whichaimstofacilitatethelegalsharingofcreativeworks.Tothisend,theorganizationprovidesanumberofgenericcopyrightlicenseoptionstothepublic,gratis.Theselicensesallowcopyrightholderstodefineconditionsunderwhichothersmayuseaworkandtospecifywhattypesofuseareacceptable.[78] Termsofusehavetraditionallybeennegotiatedonanindividualbasisbetweencopyrightholderandpotentiallicensee.Therefore,ageneralCClicenseoutliningwhichrightsthecopyrightholderiswillingtowaiveenablesthegeneralpublictousesuchworksmorefreely.SixgeneraltypesofCClicensesareavailable(althoughsomeofthemarenotproperlyfreepertheabovedefinitionsandperCreativeCommons'ownadvice).Thesearebaseduponcopyright-holderstipulationssuchaswhetherheorsheiswillingtoallowmodificationstothework,whetherheorshepermitsthecreationofderivativeworksandwhetherheorsheiswillingtopermitcommercialuseofthework.[79]Asof2009[update]approximately130millionindividualshadreceivedsuchlicenses.[79] Criticism Mainarticle:Criticismofcopyright Somesourcesarecriticalofparticularaspectsofthecopyrightsystem.Thisisknownasadebateovercopynorms.Particularlytothebackgroundofuploadingcontenttointernetplatformsandthedigitalexchangeoforiginalwork,thereisdiscussionaboutthecopyrightaspectsofdownloadingandstreaming,thecopyrightaspectsofhyperlinkingandframing. Concernsareoftencouchedinthelanguageofdigitalrights,digitalfreedom,databaserights,opendataorcensorship.[80][81][82]DiscussionsincludeFreeCulture,a2004bookbyLawrenceLessig.Lessigcoinedthetermpermissionculturetodescribeaworst-casesystem.GoodCopyBadCopy(documentary)andRiP!:ARemixManifesto,discusscopyright.Somesuggestanalternativecompensationsystem.InEuropeconsumersareactingupagainsttheraisingcostsofmusic,filmandbooks,andasaresultPiratePartieshavebeencreated.Somegroupsrejectcopyrightaltogether,takingananti-copyrightstance.Theperceivedinabilitytoenforcecopyrightonlineleadssometoadvocateignoringlegalstatuteswhenontheweb. Publicdomain Mainarticle:Publicdomain Copyright,likeotherintellectualpropertyrights,issubjecttoastatutorilydeterminedterm.Oncethetermofacopyrighthasexpired,theformerlycopyrightedworkentersthepublicdomainandmaybeusedorexploitedbyanyonewithoutobtainingpermission,andnormallywithoutpayment.However,inpayingpublicdomainregimestheusermaystillhavetopayroyaltiestothestateortoanauthors'association.Courtsincommonlawcountries,suchastheUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdom,haverejectedthedoctrineofacommonlawcopyright.Publicdomainworksshouldnotbeconfusedwithworksthatarepubliclyavailable.Workspostedintheinternet,forexample,arepubliclyavailable,butarenotgenerallyinthepublicdomain.Copyingsuchworksmaythereforeviolatetheauthor'scopyright. Seealso Lawportal AdelphiCharter Artificialscarcity Authors'rightsandrelatedrights,roughlyequivalentconceptsincivillawcountries Conflictoflaws Copyfraud Copyleft Copyrightabolition CopyrightAlliance Copyrightalternatives CopyrightforCreativity CopyrightinarchitectureintheUnitedStates Copyrightonthecontentofpatentsandinthecontextofpatentprosecution Criticismofcopyright Criticismofintellectualproperty DirectiveonCopyrightintheDigitalSingleMarket(EuropeanUnion) Copyrightinfringement Copyrightonreligiousworks CopyrightRemedyClarificationAct(CRCA) Digitalrightsmanagement Digitalwatermarking Entertainmentlaw Freedomofpanorama Informationliteracies Intellectualpropertyprotectionoftypefaces ListofCopyrightActs Listofcopyrightcaselaw Literaryproperty Modelrelease Paracopyright Philosophyofcopyright Photographyandthelaw PirateParty Printingpatent,aprecursortocopyright Privatecopyinglevy Productionmusic Rent-seeking Reproductionfees Samizdat Softwarecopyright Thresholdpledgesystem 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^Garfinkle,AnnM;Fries,Janet;Lopez,Daniel;Possessky,Laura(1997)."Artconservationandthelegalobligationtopreserveartisticintent".JAIC36(2):165–179. ^"InternationalCopyrightRelationsoftheUnitedStates",U.S. CopyrightOfficeCircularNo. 38a,August2003. ^PartiestotheGenevaActoftheUniversalCopyrightConventionArchived25June2008attheWaybackMachineasof1January2000:thedatesgiveninthedocumentaredatesofratification,notdatesofcomingintoforce.TheGenevaActcameintoforceon16September1955,forthefirsttwelvetohaveratified(whichincludedfournon-membersoftheBerneUnionasrequiredbyArt. 9.1),orthreemonthsafterratificationforothercountries. ^165 PartiestotheBerneConventionfortheProtectionofLiteraryandArtisticWorksArchived6March2016attheWaybackMachineasofMay2012. ^MacQueen,HectorL;CharlotteWaelde;GraemeTLaurie(2007).ContemporaryIntellectualProperty:LawandPolicy.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 39.ISBN 978-0-19-926339-4–viaGoogleBooks. ^17U.S.C.§ 201(b);Cmty.forCreativeNon-Violencev.Reid,490U.S.730(1989) ^CommunityforCreativeNon-Violencev.Reid ^Stim,Rich(27March2013)."CopyrightOwnership:WhoOwnsWhat?".TheCenterforInternetandSocietyFairUseProject.StanfordUniversity.Retrieved21July2019. ^abc Yu,PeterK,ed.(30December2006).Intellectualpropertyandinformationwealth:copyrightandrelatedrights.Westport,Connecticut,USA:Praeger.ISBN 978-0-275-98882-1.PraegerispartoftheGreenwoodPublishingGroup.Hardcover.PossiblealternativeISBN978-0-275-98883-8. ^WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(2016).UnderstandingCopyrightandRelatedRights(PDF).WIPO.p. 8.doi:10.34667/tind.36289.ISBN 9789280528046.Retrieved1December2017. ^abSimon,Stokes(2001).Artandcopyright.HartPublishing.pp. 48–49.ISBN 978-1-84113-225-9–viaGoogleBooks. ^ExpressNewspaperPlcvNews(UK)Plc,F.S.R.36(1991) ^"SubjectMatterandScopeofCopyright"(PDF).copyright.gov.Retrieved4June2015. ^"CopyrightinGeneral(FAQ)".U.S.CopyrightOffice.Retrieved11August2016. ^"CopyrightRegisters"Archived5October2013attheWaybackMachine,UnitedKingdomIntellectualPropertyOffice 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^Pub.L. 100–568:TheBerneConventionImplementationActof1988(BCIA),102Stat.2853,2857.OneofthechangesintroducedbytheBCIAwastosection 401,whichgovernscopyrightnoticesonpublishedcopies,specifyingthatnotices"maybeplacedon"suchcopies;priortotheBCIA,thestatutereadthatnotices"shallbeplacedonall"suchcopies.Ananalogouschangewasmadeinsection 402,dealingwithcopyrightnoticesonphonorecords. ^Taylor,Astra(2014).ThePeople'sPlatform:TakingBackPowerandCultureintheDigitalAge.NewYorkCity,NewYork,USA:Picador.pp. 144–145.ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8. ^"U.S.CopyrightOffice–InformationCircular"(PDF).Retrieved7July2012. ^17U.S.C.§ 401(d) ^Taylor,Astra(2014).ThePeople'sPlatform:TakingBackPowerandCultureintheDigitalAge.NewYork,NewYork:Picador.p. 148.ISBN 978-1-250-06259-8. ^Owen,L.(2001)."Piracy".LearnedPublishing.14:67–70.doi:10.1087/09531510125100313.S2CID 221957508. ^Butler,S.PiracyLosses"Billboard"199(36) ^"UrheberrechtsverletzungenimInternet:DerbestehenderechtlicheRahmengenügt".Ejpd.admin.ch.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19August2014.Retrieved28July2020. ^TobiasKretschmer;ChristianPeukert(2014)."VideoKilledtheRadioStar?OnlineMusicVideosandDigitalMusicSales".CepDiscussionPaper.SocialScienceElectronicPublishing.ISSN 2042-2695.SSRN 2425386. ^"IPCommissionReport"(PDF).NBR.org.Retrieved1September2021. ^"ImpactsofDigitalPiracyontheU.S.Economy"(PDF).GlobalInnovationPolicyCenter.com.Retrieved2September2021. ^"AdvertisingFuels$1.34BillionIllegalPiracyMarket,ReportbyDigitalCitizensAllianceandWhiteBulletFinds".DigitalCitizensAlliance.Retrieved2September2021. ^abc"WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisation(WIPO)"(PDF).20April2019. ^ab"THEMUTILATEDWORK"(PDF).CopyrightUser. ^"authors,attribution,andintegrity:examiningmoralrightsintheunitedstates"(PDF).U.S.CopyrightOffice.April2019. ^TomG.Palmer,"ArePatentsandCopyrightsMorallyJustified?"Accessed5February2013. ^Dalmia,VijayPal(14December2017)."CopyrightLawInIndia".Mondaq. ^17 U.S.C. § 305 ^TheDurationofCopyrightandRightsinPerformancesRegulations1995,partII,AmendmentsoftheUKCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988 ^Nimmer,David(2003).Copyright:SacredText,Technology,andtheDMCA.KluwerLawInternational.p. 63.ISBN 978-90-411-8876-2.OCLC 50606064–viaGoogleBooks. ^"CopyrightTermandthePublicDomainintheUnitedStates.",CornellUniversity. ^SeePeterB.Hirtle,"CopyrightTermandthePublicDomainintheUnitedStates1January2015"onlineatfootnote8Archived26February2015attheWaybackMachine ^LawrenceLessig,Copyright'sFirstAmendment,48UCLAL.Rev.1057,1065(2001) ^"(2012)CopyrightProtectionNotAvailableforNames,Titles,orShortPhrasesU.S.CopyrightOffice"(PDF). ^"JohnWiley&SonsInc.v.Kirtsaeng"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2July2017. ^"USCODE:Title17,107.Limitationsonexclusiverights:Fairuse"..law.cornell.edu.20May2009.Retrieved16June2009. ^"Chapter1–Circular92–U.S.CopyrightOffice".www.copyright.gov. ^"Copyright(VisuallyImpairedPersons)Act2002comesintoforce".RoyalNationalInstituteofBlindPeople.1January2011.Retrieved11August2016. ^GeneralGuidetotheCopyrightActof1976,USCopyrightOffice,Ch.8,p.11,September1977 ^abWIPOGuideontheLicensingofCopyrightandRelatedRights.WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization.2004.p. 15.ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7. ^WIPOGuideontheLicensingofCopyrightandRelatedRights.WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization.2004.p. 8.ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7. ^WIPOGuideontheLicensingofCopyrightandRelatedRights.WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization.2004.p. 16.ISBN 978-92-805-1271-7. ^ab"CreativeCommonsWebsite".creativecommons.org.Retrieved24October2011. ^abRubin,R.E.(2010)'FoundationsofLibraryandInformationScience:ThirdEdition',Neal-SchumanPublishers,Inc.,NewYork,p.341 ^"MEPsignoreexpertadviceandvoteformassinternetcensorship".EuropeanDigitalRights.20June2018.Retrieved24June2018. ^"CopyrightWeek2019:Copyrightasatoolofcensorship".EuropeanDigitalRights(EDRi).Retrieved27February2021. ^"Revealed:Howcopyrightlawisbeingmisusedtoremovematerialfromtheinternet".TheGuardian.23May2016.Retrieved27February2021. Furtherreading Dowd,RaymondJ.(2006).CopyrightLitigationHandbook(1st ed.).ThomsonWest.ISBN 0-314-96279-4. Ellis,SaraR.CopyrightingCouture:AnExaminationofFashionDesignProtectionandWhytheDPPAandIDPPPAareaStepTowardstheSolutiontoCounterfeitChic,78Tenn.L.Rev.163(2010),availableatCopyrightingCouture:AnExaminationofFashionDesignProtectionandWhytheDPPAandIDPPPAareaStepTowardstheSolutiontoCounterfeitChic. Ghosemajumder,Shuman.AdvancedPeer-BasedTechnologyBusinessModels.MITSloanSchoolofManagement,2002. Lehman,Bruce:IntellectualPropertyandtheNationalInformationInfrastructure(ReportoftheWorkingGrouponIntellectualPropertyRights,1995) Lindsey,Marc:CopyrightLawonCampus.WashingtonStateUniversityPress,2003.ISBN 978-0-87422-264-7. Mazzone,Jason.Copyfraud.SSRN McDonagh,Luke.IsCreativeuseofMusicalWorkswithoutalicenceacceptableunderCopyright?InternationalReviewofIntellectualPropertyandCompetitionLaw(IIC)4(2012)401–426,availableatSSRN Nimmer,Melville;DavidNimmer(1997).NimmeronCopyright.MatthewBender.ISBN 0-8205-1465-9. Patterson,LymanRay(1968).CopyrightinHistoricalPerspective.OnlineVersion.VanderbiltUniversityPress.ISBN 0-8265-1373-5. Rife,byMartineCourant.Convention,Copyright,andDigitalWriting(SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress;2013)222pages;Examineslegal,pedagogical,andotheraspectsofonlineauthorship. Rosen,Ronald(2008).MusicandCopyright.OxfordOxfordshire:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-533836-2. Shipley,DavidE."ThinButNotAnorexic:CopyrightProtectionforCompilationsandOtherFactWorks"UGALegalStudiesResearchPaperNo.08-001;JournalofIntellectualPropertyLaw,Vol.15,No.1,2007. Silverthorne,Sean.MusicDownloads:Pirates-orCustomers?.HarvardBusinessSchoolWorkingKnowledge,2004. SorceKeller,Marcello."Originality,AuthenticityandCopyright",Sonus,VII(2007),no.2,pp. 77–85. Steinberg,S.H.;Trevitt,John(1996).FiveHundredYearsofPrinting(4th ed.).LondonandNewCastle:TheBritishLibraryandOakKnollPress.ISBN 1-884718-19-1. Story,Alan;Darch,Colin;Halbert,Deborah,eds.(2006).TheCopy/SouthDossier:IssuesintheEconomics,PoliticsandIdeologyofCopyrightintheGlobalSouth(PDF).Copy/SouthResearchGroup.ISBN 978-0-9553140-1-8.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on16August2013. Ransom,HarryHuntt(1956).TheFirstCopyrightStatute.Austin:UniversityofTexas.ISBN 9780292732353. Rose,M.(1993),AuthorsandOwners:TheInventionofCopyright,London:HarvardUniversityPress Loewenstein,J.(2002),TheAuthor'sDue:PrintingandthePrehistoryofCopyright,London:UniversityofChicagoPress. Abbott,Madigan,Mossoff,Osenga,Rosen."HoldingStatesAccountableforCopyrightPiracy"(PDF).RegulatoryTransparencyProject.Retrieved15May2021.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) Externallinks WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoCopyright. WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoCopyright. Wikisourcehasthetextofthe1911EncyclopædiaBritannicaarticle"Copyright". Wikisourcehasoriginaltextrelatedtothisarticle: Copyrightlaw LibraryresourcesaboutCopyright Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Moraes,Frank(2October2020)."CopyrightLawIn2020ExplainedInOnePage".WhoIsHostingThis.com.Asimplifiedguide. CopyrightatCurlie WIPOLexfromWIPO;globaldatabaseoftreatiesandstatutesrelatingtointellectualproperty CopyrightBerneConvention:CountryListListofthe164membersoftheBerneConventionfortheprotectionofliteraryandartisticworks CopyrightandStateSovereignImmunity,U.S.CopyrightOffice TheMulti-Billion-DollarPiracyIndustrywithTomGalvinofDigitalCitizensAlliance,TheIllusionofMorePodcast Education CopyrightCortex ABibliographyontheOriginsofCopyrightandDroitd'Auteur MITOpenCourseWare6.912IntroductiontoCopyrightLawFreeself-studycoursewithvideolecturesasofferedduringtheJanuary2006,IndependentActivitiesPeriod(IAP) USA CopyrightLawoftheUnitedStatesDocuments,USGovernment CompendiumofCopyrightPractices(3rded.)UnitedStatesCopyrightOffice CopyrightfromUCBLibrariesGovPubs EarlyCopyrightRecordsFromtheRareBookandSpecialCollectionsDivisionattheLibraryofCongress UK Copyright:DetailedinformationattheUKIntellectualPropertyOffice FactsheetP-01:UKcopyrightlaw(IssuedApril2000,amended25November2020)attheUKCopyrightService vteCopyrightlawbycountry CopyrightActsbycountry Copyrightcaselawbycountry Copyrightlengthsbycountry Internationalcopyrighttreaties(bycountry) Ruleoftheshorterterm relatedrights Africa Benin [fr] Burundi Cameroon Ghana Egypt IvoryCoast [fr] Madagascar [fr] Morocco [fr] Mozambique [ru] Senegal [fr] SouthAfrica Americas Argentina Bermuda Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile DominicanRepublic Ecuador [es] ElSalvador Honduras Panama Peru UnitedStates Uruguay [es] Venezuela Asia Afghanistan Azerbaijan Bangladesh China HongKong India Indonesia Iran Israel [ru] Japan Jordan NorthKorea SouthKorea Lebanon [ru] Malaysia Mongolia [ru] Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines SaudiArabia SriLanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand UnitedArabEmirates [de] Uzbekistan [ru] EuropeEuropeanUnion Austria [de] Belgium [fr] France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Latvia [ru] Lithuania [ru] Luxembourg [de] Netherlands Poland Romania Spain Sweden Othercountries Albania Armenia [ru] Belarus [ru] Georgia Kazakhstan [ru] Kyrgyzstan [ru] Moldova Russia USSR RussianFederation Serbia Switzerland Turkey Ukraine UnitedKingdom Oceania Australia NewZealand Category:Copyrightlawbycountry Wikipedia:Non-U.S.copyrights vteIntellectualpropertyactivismIssues Artificialscarcity Copyrightinfringement Copyrighttroll Digitalrightsmanagement Gripesite Legalaspectsoffilesharing Mashup digital music novel videos Monopoliesofknowledge Musicpiracy Orphanworks Patents biological software softwarepatentdebate trolling Publicdomain Concepts Allrightsreversed Alternativecompensationsystem Anti-copyrightnotice Businessmodelsforopen-sourcesoftware Copyleft Commercialuseofcopyleftworks Commons-basedpeerproduction Electronicsell-through Freecontent Free-softwarelicense Libertarianpositions Opencontent Open-designmovement Openmusicmodel Openpatent Opensource hardware software Prizesinsteadofpatents contests Share-alike Videoondemand Movements AccesstoKnowledgemovement Anti-copyright Culturalenvironmentalism Free-culturemovement 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