Diencephalon: Anatomy and function | Kenhub

The human brain can be subdivided by many classification systems. One particular nomenclature that refers to the duality of the brain is the diencephalon. It is ... Connectionlost.Pleaserefreshthepage. 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Pickyourfavoritestudytool Videos Quizzes Both Registernow andgrabyourfreeultimateanatomystudyguide! GoPremium Diencephalon Author: LorenzoCrumbieMBBS,BSc • Reviewer: ElizabethO.Johnson,PhD Lastreviewed:March20,2022 Readingtime:22minutes Diencephalon Thehumanbraincanbesubdividedbymanyclassificationsystems.Oneparticularnomenclaturethatreferstothedualityofthebrainisthediencephalon.Itisthecaudalpartoftheforebrain(prosencephalon)thatoccupiesthecentralregionofthebrain.Thediencephaloniscomprisedofthe: Epithalamus Thalamus Subthalamus Metathalamus Hypothalamus Inthefollowingarticle,wewillexploretheanatomyofdifferentpartsofthediencephalonaswellastheirfunction. Keyfactsaboutthediencephalon Parts Epithalamus Thalamus Subthalamus Metathalamus Hypothalamus Bloodsupply Posteriorcerebralartery Posteriorcommunicatingartery Embryology At5thweekofgestationderivedfromprosencephalon Function Primaryrelayandprocessingcenterforsensoryinformationandautonomiccontrol: -viaconnections limbicsystem-seatofmemoryandemotion  -viaconnectionswithbasalganglia-motorcoordination -viaconnectionswithprimarysensoryareas,suchasauditoryorvisual Contents Function Grossanatomy Borders Bloodsupply Epithalamus Thalamus Nuclei Surfaces Subthalamus Characteristicsandcomponents Connections Metathalamus Medialgeniculatebody Lateralgeniculatebody Hypothalamus Relations Nucleiandareas Embryology Clinicalsignificance Diencephalic(Russell’s)syndrome Panhypopituitarismsyndrome Sources +Showall Function Eachofthecomponentsofthediencephalonhasspecializedfunctionsthatareintegraltolife.Thediencephalonactsasaprimaryrelayandprocessingcenterforsensoryinformationandautonomiccontrol.Theplethoraofcommunicatingpathwaysbetweenthesestructuresandotherpartsofthebodymakesthediencephalonafunctionallydiversearea.Someoftheseconnectionsincludepathwaystothelimbicsystem(seatofmemoryandemotion),basalganglia(motorcoordination),aswellasprimarysensoryareas,suchasauditoryorvisual. Thisarticlewillexploretheembryologyofthediencephalon,aswellasthegrossanatomyandfunctionofitsvariouscomponents.Clinicallysignificantpointsrelatingtothisregionofthebrainwillalsobediscussed. Wonderingwhat'sthebestwaytolearntheneuroanatomy?Tryoutournervoussystemquizzesandmore! Grossanatomy Thereareseveralstructuresbetweenthebrainstemandthecerebralcortexthatmakeupthediencephalon.Theseincludetheepithalamus,thalamus,subthalamus,metathalamus,hypothalamus,hypophysiscerebriandthethirdventricleasitscavity.Themedialandlateralgeniculatebodies,whicharecollectivelycalledthemetathalamus,alongwiththepulvinar,arefrequentlyregardedasanintegralpartofthedorsalthalamus. Borders Thethirdventricleisanarrowverticalmidlinecleftbetweenandbelowthetwolateralventriclesandinbetweenleftandrightthalami.ThelateralventriclescommunicatewiththethirdventricleviatheinterventricularforamenofMonro.ItalsocommunicateswiththefourthventricleposteroinferiorlyviathecerebralaqueductofSylvius. Thirdventricle Ventriculustertius 1/2 Itpossessesaroof,afloorandfourwalls:anterior,posteriorandtwolateral. Theroofisformedbythethintelachoroidea,whichisacombinationoftwomembranes,theependymaandpiamater. Withinthetelachoroideaaretwoplexusesofbloodvessels(oneoneithersideofthemiddleline)thatbulgedownwardsintothecavityofthethirdventricle.Thesearethechoroidplexusesofthethirdventriclewhichfunctionsasapointofproductionofthecerebrospinalfluid(CSF).  Thefloorismadeupoftheopticchiasm,thetubercinereumandinfundibulum,themammillarybodies,theposteriorperforatedsubstanceandtheuppermostpartofthemesencephalictegmentum. Theanteriorwallisthedelicatelaminaterminalis,aswellastheanteriorcommissureandanteriorcolumnofthefornix.. Theshortposteriorwallisformedbythestalkofthepinealgland,posteriorcommissureandtheHabenularcommissures. Thelateralwallsareofthecavityareformedbythemedialwallsofeachthalami.Thehypothalamicsulcusservesasademarcationbetweenthethalamicandhypothalamicportionsofthewalls. Bloodsupply Thediencephalonisrichlysuppliedbyseveralbloodvessels,notablythethalamogeniculatebranchesoftheposteriorcerebralarteryandthalamoperforatingbranchesoftheposteriorcerebralarteryandposteriorcommunicatingartery. Epithalamus Theepithalamusliesinrelationtotheposteriorpartoftheroofofthethirdventricleandthelittleadjoiningpartofitslateralwall.Itconsistsofthefollowingparts: Striamedullaris Posteriorcommissure  Habenularnuclei(medialandlateral) Pinealbody Paraventricularnuclei(anteriorandposterior) Striamedullarisofthalamus Striamedullaristhalami 1/3 Thestriamedullaristhalamilieclosetothetaeniathalamiasabundleoffibresalongthejunctionofthemedialandsuperiorsurfacesofthethalamus.ItbeginsneartheanteriorpoleofthethalamusandrunsposteriorlytowardtheHabenulartrigone.Fromthestriamedullaristhalami,somefibrescrossinthesuperiororanteriorlaminaofthepinealstalktoreachtheHabenularnucleioftheoppositeside.  ThesefibresconstitutetheHabenularcommissure,someofwhichalsoconnecttheamygdaloidandhippocampalcomplexesoftherightandleftcerebralhemispheres.Theposteriorcommissureliesintheinferiorlaminaofthestalkofthepinealbody.Anumberofsmallnucleiarepresentinrelationtothecommissure,suchastheinterstitialanddorsalnucleioftheposteriorcommissure,thenucleusofDarkschewitschandtheinterstitialnucleusofCajal(bothnucleicommunicatewiththevestibularnucleiviathemediallongitudinalfasciculus). Pinealgland Glandulapinealis 1/2 Synonyms: Pinealbody,Epiphysis , showmore... Thepinealglandisasmallpiriformstructurelocatedinrelationtotheposteriorwallofthethirdventricle.Itisanendocrineglandofconsiderablesignificanceandismadeupofcellscalledpinealocytes,whichsecretemelatonininresponsetodarkness. Thepinealbodyalsosecretesanumberofpolypeptidehormonesthat,alongwithmelatonin,haveanimportantregulatoryinfluenceonmanyendocrineorgansincludingthepituitarygland,thyroid,parathyroids,adrenalsandgonads.Hormonesofthepinealglandreachthehypophysiscerebrithroughthebloodstreamandthecerebrospinalfluid(CSF).Ashumansage,thepinealglandsbecomecalcifiedandformwhatareknownascorporaarenaceaorbrainsand. Thalamus Thethalamusisthelargestmassofgreymatterofthediencephalonthatislaterallyrelatedtothethirdventricle.Thesymmetricalhalvesofthismidlinestructurearelocatedbetweenthecerebralcorticesandthemidbrain.Ithasananteriorandaposteriorpole,aswellassuperior,inferior,medialandlateralsurfaces.Itssuperiorpartiscoveredbyathinlayerofwhitemattercalledthestratumzonaleanditslateralsurfaceiscoveredbyasimilarlayercalledtheexternalmedullarylamina. Nuclei Thethalamusalsocomprisesseveralnuclei, whicharedividedinto5 groups:anterior,medial,lateral, intralaminarandreticularnuclei. Thalamicnucleiareinchargeformanyimportantfunctions,suchas relayingofsensoryandmotorsignals, andtheregulationofconsciousness,sleep,andalertness. Keyfactsaboutthenucleiofthethalamus Anteriornuclei Anteroventralnucleus  Anteromedialnucleus  Anterodorsalnucleus  Medialnuclei Dorsomedialnucleus  Midlinenucleus(median,periventricular) Lateralnuclei Dorsalgroup -Lateraldorsal  -Lateralposterior  -Pulvinar  Ventralgroup -Ventralanterior  -Ventrallateral -Ventralposterior  -Ventralposteriormedial  -Ventralposteriorlateral -Ventralposteriorinferior  Metathalamicnuclei -Medialgeniculatenucleus -Lateralgeniculatenucleus Intralaminarnuclei Centromediannucleus  Parafascicularnucleus Reticularnucleus Reticularthalamicnucleus Notethatthelocationofthethalamicreticularnucleusisoftendisputable.Fornow,itislistedasthepartoftheventralthalamusthatformsacapsulearoundthethalamuslaterally.However,recentresearchesquestionthisstatementanddefineitasapartofthedorsalthalamus. Learneverythingaboutthethalamicnucleihere: Thalamicnuclei Explorestudyunit Customquiz:Thalamicnuclei Startquiz Surfaces Thalamus 1/4 Synonyms: Dorsalthalamus,Thalamencephalon , showmore... TheanteriorpoleofthethalamusliesjustbehindtheinterventricularforamenofMonro.Itsposteriorpolemakesupthepulvinar,andliesjustsuperiorandlateraltothesuperiorcolliculus.Themedialandlateralgeniculatebodiesareconnectedtotheinferiorandsuperiorcolliculibytheinferiorandsuperiorbrachiumquadrigeminum,respectively. Themedialsurfaceformsthegreaterpartofthelateralwallofthethirdventricle,andislinedbyependyma.Amassofgreymattercalledtheinterthalamicadhesion(connexus)isfoundattachedtothemedialsurfacesofthetwothalamiandthisconnexusinterconnectstheleftandrightthalami.Inferiorly,themedialsurfaceisseparatedfromthehypothalamusbythehypothalamicsulcus. Theinternalcapsuleisrelatedtothelateralsurfaceofthethalamusandseparatesthissurfacefromthelentiformnucleus(globuspallidusandputamen)ofthebasalganglia.Thethalamostriateveinandabundleoffibrescalledthestriaterminalisareincloseappositiontothedorsalorsuperiorsurfaceofthethalamus,andthesestructuresseparatethethalamusfromthecaudatenucleusofthebasalganglia.Theinferiorsurfaceofthethalamusisrelatedtothehypothalamus. Thethalamusandcaudatenucleusformthefloorofthecentralpartofthelateralventricles.However,themedialpartofthesuperiorsurfaceofthethalamusisseparatedfromtheseventriclesbythefornix,andbyafoldofpiamatercalledthetelachoroidea.Atthejunctionofthemedialandlateralsurfacesofthethalamustheependymaofthethirdventricleisreflectedfromthelateralwalltotheroof.Thelineofreflectionismarkedbyalinecalledthetaeniathalami,underneathwhichthereisanarrowbundleoffibrescalledthestriamedullaristhalami. Testyourknowledgeaboutthethalamushere: Subthalamus Characteristicsandcomponents Thalamicreticularnucleus Nucleusreticularisthalami 1/2 Synonyms: TRN,NRT Thesubthalamusreferstothepartofthediencephalonthatliesbelowtheposteriorpartofthethalamusjustbehindandlateraltothehypothalamus.It includesnucleiandgreymattersuchasthezonaincerta,reticularnucleus,andtheperigeniculatenucleus. Thezonaincertaprovidesgamma-aminobutyricacidstimulation(GABAergic)tothethalamus;whilethereticularnucleusprovidesGABAergicregulationtothethalamocorticalpathway.Collectively,thepre-geniculatenucleusandthelateralgeniculatenucleusformthelateralgeniculatecomplex. Thesubthalamusiscontinuouswiththeupperendsoftherednucleusandsubstantianigraofthetegmentumofthemidbraininferiorly.Laterallyitreachesthelowestpartoftheinternalcapsule. Beforegoinganyfurtherinyourquesttolearnthediencephalon,makesureyou'vemasteredthebasics.Ourfreequizzesonthepartsofthebrainareagreatplacetostart. Connections Thepre-geniculatenucleushasconnectionssimilartothelateralgeniculatenucleusandincludesfibresfromtheretina,pretectalregionandsuperiorcolliculus,thusplayingaroleinvisionandeyemovements.Thezonaincertahasstrongconnectionswiththereticularnucleusofthethalamuswhichitconnectsasathinlaminaofgreymatter.Itisbelievedtobeinvolvedintheregulationofvisceralactivitiessuchassexuality,hydrationandfoodintakeaswellascardiovascularactivity. Lateralgeniculatenucleus(connectionswithretina) Fibresemergingfromthedorsalthalamus(thalamusproper)traversetheventralthalamusthroughthereticularnucleus.Thesefibresgivethenucleusareticulatedappearance,hencethename.Thereticularnucleusismadeofathinlayerofneuronscoveringthelateralaspectofthedorsalthalamus,andisalsorelatedtotheinternalcapsule.Inferiorlyitbecomespartiallycontinuouswiththezonaincerta.Themainefferentfibersofthereticularnucleuspasstothedorsalthalamus;howeverafferentsreachitfromthenucleuscuneiformis(inthereticularformationofthemidbrain). Otherconnectionsofthesubthalamusincludeafferentsfromthecerebralcortex,putamen,globuspallidus,trigeminalnuclei,cerebellarnucleiandpretectalregion.Theseafferentsreachthereticularnucleusandzonaincertathroughwhichitsendsefferentfiberstothosestructuresandthespinalcord.Theventralthalamusalsohasconnectionswiththedentatenucleus,cerebralpeduncle,fasciculuslenticularis,ansalenticularis,pre-rubralfieldandthalamicfasciculus. Metathalamus Themetathalamusconsistsoftwoovaleminences(thegeniculatebodies)onthecaudalsurfaceofthediencephalon,justinferiortothecaudalendofthedorsalthalamus. Thelateralandmedialgeniculatebodiesfunctionasprimarythalamicrelaystationsfortheauditoryandopticsystem,respectively. Medialgeniculatebody Medialgeniculatebody Corpusgeniculatummediale 1/2 Synonyms: Medialgeniculatenucleus Themedialgeniculatebodyreceivestonotopically(arrangementofsoundbasedonfrequencyonthebrain)organizedauditoryinformationfromtheinferiorcolliculusofthequadrigemini,viathebrachiumoftheinferiorcolliculus.ProcessedinformationfromthemedialgeniculatebodyisthenrelayedviatheauditoryradiationtotheprimaryauditorycortexonthetransversegyrusofHeschel.Themedialgeniculatebodyconsistsofthreemajordivisions: thedorsaldivision, consistingoftheposteriorpartoftheparvocellularnucleus themedialdivision,ormagnocellularnucleus theventraldivision,consistingoftheventralpartoftheparvocellularnucleus. Lateralgeniculatebody Thelateralgeniculatebodyreceivesretinotopic(mappingofvisualinputonthebrain)inputfromthecontralateralvisualfieldviatheoptictract.Informationisrelayedfromthelateralgeniculateinatopographicmannerviapartoftheopticradiation(calledMeyer’sloop)totheprimaryvisualcortex.Thelateralgeniculatebodyconsistsoflayersofneurons,andthevisualinformationreceivedisdividedamongthevariouslayers. Lateralgeniculatebody Corpusgeniculatumlaterale 1/3 Synonyms: Lateralgeniculatenucleus Hypothalamus Relations Hypothalamus 1/2 Asthenamesuggests,thehypothalamusisthepartofthediencephalonthatliesbelowthethalamus.Likethethalamus,itcomprisesseveralsubdivisionsandnuclei,includingtheperiventricularzone,themedialzoneandthelateralzone.Onthemedialside,itformsthewallofthethirdventriclebelowthelevelofthehypothalamicsulcus.Posteriorly,thehypothalamusmergeswiththeventralthalamus,andthroughitwiththetegmentumofthemidbrain. Anteriorly,itextendsuptothelaminaterminalis,andmergeswithcertainolfactorystructuresintheregionoftheanteriorperforatedsubstance.Inferiorly,thehypothalamusisrelatedtostructuresinthefloorofthethirdventricle.Thesearethetubercinereum,theinfundibulum,andthemammillarybodies,whichareconsideredpartofthehypothalamus.Viainfundibulum,thehypothalamusconnectsto pituitarygland. Learnthehypothalamusanatomyandfunctionwithourarticles,videotutorials,quizzesandlabeleddiagrams. Hypothalamus Explorestudyunit Nucleiandareas Frommedialtolateral,hypothalamusisdividedintothreezones:periventricular,medialandlateral.Anteriortoposterior,therearethreeregionsofhypothalamus;anterior,middleandposterior. Thehypothalamicnucleiarelocatedwithintheseregions,andfunctionally,thereare4groupsofnuclei:preoptic,supraoptic(chiasmatic),infundibular(tuberal)andmammillary.  Keyfactsaboutthenucleiofthehypothalamus Anteriorregion Preopticnuclei: - Preopticnucleus -Periventricularnuclei -Medialpreopticnucleus -Lateralpreopticnucleus Supraoptic(chiasmatic)nuclei: -Suprachiasmaticnucleus -Periventricularnuclei -Anteriorhypothalamicnucleus -Paraventricularnucleus -Supraopticnucleus -Lateralhypothalamicnucleus Middleregion Infundibular(tuberal)nuclei:  -Arcuatenucleus -Dorsomedialnucleus -Ventromedialnucleus -Lateraltuberalnuclei -Lateralhypothalamicnucleus Posteriorregion Mammillarynuclei: -Nucleiofthemammillarybodies -Posteriorhypothalamicnuclei -Lateralhypothalamicnucleus Functionallythehypothalamusisinvolvedinthecontrolofseveralcognitivebehaviours,mainlyowingtoitsconnectionswithanatomicalareasresponsiblefororinvolvedintheseactivities.Howeverthemainfunctionsattributedtothehypothalamusincludetheregulationofeatinganddrinkingbehaviour,regulationofsexualactivityandreproduction,andthecontrolofautonomicactivity. Otheractivitiesofthehypothalamusincluderegulationofemotionalbehaviour,controlofseveral endocrineactivities,responsetostress,temperatureregulation,aswellasthecontrolofcircadianrhythms. Testyourknowledgeandconsolidatewhatyou'velearnedaboutthehypothalamuswiththefollowingquiz: Embryology Theanteriormostpartofthe primarycerebralvesiclesoftheembryogivesrisetotheprosencephalicportionofthefoetalbrain.Ataboutthe5thweekofdevelopment,theprosencephalonisfurthersubdividedintoaventraltelencephalon(thatdifferentiatestoformthecerebralhemispheres)andacaudaldiencephalon(secondarycerebralvesicles).Thelatteroriginatesfromthemedianregionoftheprosencephalon.Inutero,theregionconsistsoftwolateralalarplates(representingsensoryareas),aroofplate(mostdorsalpartoftheneuraltube),andthethirdventricle.Thescientificcommunityisunclearwhetherornotbasalplates(representingmotorareas)existasitisnotphysicallyobserved,butthecorrespondingbiomarkershavebeenidentified.  Thealarplatesgiverisetothelateralwallsofthethirdventricle(andbyconvention,themedialwallsofthethalamus).Rapidcellularproliferationresultsinmedialprojectionofthethalamusintothediencephaliccavity(futurespaceofthethirdventricle),resultinginamidlinefusionofaportionofthethalamusknownasthemassaintermediaortheinterthalamicconnexus(adhesions).Ashallowgrooveknownasthehypothalamicsulcusemergesanddividesthewallsofthediencephalonintothethalamus(dorsally)andthehypothalamus(ventrally).Theroofplateiscomprisedofamonolayerofependymalcellsthatiscoatedwithvascularmesenchyme.Thisareasubsequentlydifferentiatesintothechoroidplexusofthethirdventricle.Caudally,theroofplatedifferentiatesintotheepiphysis(pinealbody). Thehypothalamusfurtherdifferentiatesintoavarietyofnuclearregionsthatareresponsibleforaneclecticcollectionofbodyfunctions.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto,digestion,thermoregulation,andcircadianregulation.Caudaltothehypothalamusisthehypophysiscerebri(pituitarygland).Itoriginatesfrombothectodermalandneuroglialtissueandasaresult,itcanbesubdividedintotheadenohypophysisandtheneurohypophysis. Ofnote,theprosencephalonalsogivesrisetotheopticcupandstalk,whichsubsequentlydevelopsintotheretinaoftheeye. Clinicalsignificance Diencephalic(Russell’s)syndrome Itshouldbenotedthatalesion(vascularorneoplastic)ofanypartofthediencephalonmayresultinadeficitinthefunctionassociatedwiththatcomponent.Forexample,aninsulttothesupraopticnucleusofthehypothalamuscanimpairtheproductionandsubsequentreleaseofvasopressin. Diencephalic(Russell’s)syndromeisararedisordercharacterizedby: severeemaciationwithnormalcaloricintake euphoria locomotorhyperactivity non-anaemicpallor hypotension hypoglycaemia Neoplasticinsultsoftheopticandhypothalamicregionaretheprimarycauseofthisdisorder.Thesyndromeisoneofthemajorcausesoffailuretothriveamongpaediatricpatients.Fortunately,itseldomprohibitsthepatientfromachievingtheirdevelopmentalmilestones. Panhypopituitarismsyndrome Globaldeficiencyofpituitaryhormonesisclinicallyclassifiedasapanhypopituitarismsyndrome.Thismayresultfromeitherlocalimpairmentoftheglandordysregulationofthehypothalamus.Iatrogenicinsultstothepituitarygland(radiationtherapy),postpartumpituitarynecrosisandtraumaticbraininjurycanalsoresultinhypopituitarism. Patientpresentationisdependentonwhichhormone(s)is(are)predominantlydeficient.Forexample,adeficiencyingrowthhormonewillresultinfailuretothriveinchildren;whilelowlevelsofthyroidstimulatinghormonewouldcausehypothyroidism. Sources AllcontentpublishedonKenhubisreviewedbymedicalandanatomyexperts.Theinformationweprovideisgroundedonacademicliteratureandpeer-reviewedresearch.Kenhubdoesnotprovidemedicaladvice.Youcanlearnmoreaboutourcontentcreationandreviewstandardsbyreadingourcontentqualityguidelines. References: Corenblum,BernardandJamesRMulinda: "Hypopituitarism(Panhypopituitarism):Background,Pathophysiology,Etiology". Emedicine.medscape.com.N.p.,2016.Web.14Aug.2016. Fukushima,K.:"TheInterstitialNucleusOfCajalAndItsRoleInTheControlOfMovementsOfHeadAndEyes". ProgressinNeurobiology 29.2(1987):107-192. HelenaCardoso,Silvia: "BrainVentricles:ThirdVentricle". Cerebromente.org.br.N.p.,1997.Web.14Aug.2016. Herrero,Maria-Trinidad,CarlosBarcia,andJuanaNavarro: "FunctionalAnatomyOfThalamusAndBasalGanglia". Child'sNervousSystem 18.8(2002):386-404. Kim,Ahleeetal.:"DiencephalicSyndrome:AFrequentlyNeglectedCauseOfFailureToThriveInInfants". KoreanJPediatr 58.1(2015):28.Web.14Aug.2016. Kremer,HP.:"TheHypothalamicLateralTuberalNucleus:NormalAnatomyAndChangesInNeurologicalDiseases". ProgBrainRes 93(1992):249-261.Print. Sadler,T.WandJanLangman: Langman'sMedicalEmbryology.Philadelphia:WoltersKluwerHealth/LippincottWilliams&Wilkins,2012.Print. Sinnatamby,ChummySandR.JLast: Last'sAnatomy.Edinburgh:ChurchillLivingstone/Elsevier,2011.Print. Standring,SusanandHenryGray: Gray'sAnatomy.[Edinburgh]:ChurchillLivingstone/Elsevier,2008.Print. Illustrators: Diencephalon(mid-sagittalview)-PaulKim  Thirdventricle(lateral-leftview)-PaulKim Striamedullarisofthalamus(cranialview)-PaulKim Pinealgland(dorsalview)-PaulKim Thalamus- PaulKim Thalamus(cross-sectionalview)-PaulKim Medialgeniculatenucleus(dorsalview)-PaulKim Lateralgeniculatenucleus(dorsalview)-PaulKim Pituitarygland(cranialview)-PaulKim Diencephalon:wanttolearnmoreaboutit? Ourengagingvideos,interactivequizzes,in-deptharticlesandHDatlasareheretogetyoutopresultsfaster. Whatdoyouprefertolearnwith? Videos Quizzes Both “IwouldhonestlysaythatKenhubcutmystudytimeinhalf.” – Readmore. KimBengochea,RegisUniversity,Denver ©Unlessstatedotherwise,allcontent,includingillustrationsareexclusivepropertyofKenhubGmbH,andareprotectedbyGermanandinternationalcopyrightlaws.Allrightsreserved. Boredbyanatomy? Trythis ➞ Registernow andgrabyourfreeultimateanatomystudyguide! Learninganatomyisn'timpossible.We'reheretohelp. Learninganatomyisamassiveundertaking,andwe'reheretohelpyoupasswithflyingcolours. Createyourfreeaccount➞ Ourengagingvideos,interactivequizzes,in-deptharticlesandHDatlasareheretogetyoutopresultsfaster. Whatdoyouprefertolearnwith? Videos Quizzes Both